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FRONTISPIECE. 



PLATE 




TEA PLANT. 



FOOD 
ADU LTERATION 

AND 

ITS DETECTION. 

WITH PHOTOMICROGRAPHIC PLATES AND 
A BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX. 



BY 



JESSE P. BATTERSHALL, Ph.D., F.C.S., 



CHEMIST, U.S. LABORATORY, 

NEW YORK CITY. 










/^jtf OF CO\ Gp . 

' AUG 29 1887 



NEW YORK: 

E. & F. N. SPON, 35, MURRAY STREET, 

and 125, STRAND, LONDON. 

1887. 



s* 






$ 



[Copyright, 1887. By JESSE P. BATTERSHALL.] 



PREFACE. 



To embody in a condensed form some salient features of 
the present status of Food Adulteration in the United 
States is the object of this volume. The importance of 
the subject, and the apparent need of a book of moderate 
dimensions relating thereto, must suffice as its raison 
d'etre. The standard works have been freely consulted, 
and valuable data have been obtained from the recent 
reports of our State and Civic Boards of Health. The 
system of nomenclature accepted by the American 
Chemical Society has been generally adopted. It was, 
however, deemed advisable to retain such names as 
glycerine, sodium bicarbonate, etc., in place of the more 
modern but less well-known terms, glycerol and sodium 
hydrogen carbonate, even at a slight sacrifice of 
uniformity. 

The photogravure plates, most of which represent the 
results of recent microscopical investigation, are considered 
an important feature of the book. And it is believed 
that the bibliographical appendix, and the collation of 
American Legislation on Adulteration, will supply a want 
for ready reference often experienced. 

U. S. Laboratory, 

July ist, 1887. 



CONTENTS. 



Introduction 








PAGE 


Tea 


.. 






. 12 


Coffee 








, 2 9 


Cocoa and Chocolate 








. 42 


Milk 

Butter . . . . • 


. 






• 49 

• 63 


Cheese 








• 83 


Flour, Bread, and Starch 








• 87 


Bakers' Chemicals 


. 






. IOI 


Sugar 








. 104 


Honey 








. 121 


Confectionery 


. 






. 129 


Beer 


. 






. 132 


Wine 








• 157 


Liquors 

Water .. 








. 186 
. 200 


Vinegar 








. 225 


Pickles 

Olive Oil 








• 232 

• 233 


Mustard 








• 239 


Pepper 

Spices 

Miscellaneous 








• 243 

• 249 

. 254 


Bibliography 








. 258 


Laws 








. 268 



Index 



320 



PLATES. 



PAGE 

I. Tea Plant .. ,. .. .. .. frontispiece 



II. Tea Leaves 

III. Tea and other Leaves 

IV. Cream and Cow's Milk 

V. Skimmed and Colostrum Milk 

VI. Butter and Oleomargarine 

VII. Fat Crystals 

VIII. Artificial Digestion of Butter and Oleomar 

garine 

IX, Starches 

X. Polariscope 

XI. Organisms in Water 

XII. Spices 



17 
18 
61 
62 
78 
79 

82 
100 
112 
218 
252 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 



INTRODUCTION. 

Of the various branches cognate to chemical research 
which excite public attention, that of food adulteration 
doubtless possesses the greatest interest. To the dealer in 
alimentary substances, the significance of their sophistica- 
tion is frequently merely one of profit or loss, and even this 
comparatively unimportant consideration does not always 
attach. But to the general community, the subject appeals 
to interests more vital than a desire to avoid pecuniary 
damage, and involving, as it necessarily does, the question 
of health, it has engendered a feeling of uneasiness, accom- 
panied by an earnest desire for trustworthy information 
and data. The most usual excuses advanced by dishonest 
traders, when a case of adulteration has been successfully 
brought home to them — guilty knowledge being also 
established — are, that they are compelled to resort to the 
misdeed by the public demand for cheap commodities, that 
the addition is harmless, or actually constitutes an improve- 
ment, as is asserted to be the case when chicory is added 
to coffee, or that it serves as a preservative, as was formerly 
alleged to be the fact when vinegar was fortified with 
sulphuric acid. Pretexts of this sort are almost invariably 
fallacious. The claim that manufacturers are often forced 
into adulteration by the necessities of unfair trade compe- 
tition possesses more weight — an honest dealer cannot as 
a rule successfully compete with a dishonest one — and 
has undoubtedly influenced many of the better class to 



2 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

co-operate in attempts to prevent the practice. The general 
feeling of uncertainty which exists in the public mind con- 
cerning the actual extent and importance of food adultera- 
tion is probably to be ascribed to two causes. In the 
first place, most of the literature generally accessible relating 
to the subject has been limited to sensational newspaper 
articles, reciting some startling instance of food-poisoning, 
often unauthenticated and bearing upon its face evidences 
of exaggeration. By reason of such publications, periodical 
panics have been created in our large cities which, however, 
as a rule quickly subside, and the community relapses into 
the customary feeling of doubtful security, until aroused 
from its apathy by the next exposL The fact that the only 
reliable results of food investigation have, until recently, 
been confined to purely scientific journals, and therefore 
not prominently brought to public notice, is another expla- 
nation of the lack of creditable information which generally 
prevails concerning this species of sophistication. 

The adulteration of alimentary substances was practised 
in the civilised countries of Europe at a very remote date, 
and the early history of the art, mainly collated by Prof. 
Blyth in his valuable work on food,* is replete with interest. 
Bread certainly received due attention at the hands of the 
ancient sophisticator. Pliny makes several references to 
the adulteration of this food. In England, as early as the 
reign of King John, the sale of the commodity was con- 
trolled by the " Assize of Bread," which, although originally 
designed to regulate the price and size of the loaf, was 
subsequently amplified so as to include penalties for falsi- 
fication, usually consisting of corporal punishment and 
exposure in the pillory. In France, in 1382, ordinances 
were promulgated specifying the proper mode of bread- 
making, the punishment for infringement being similar in 
character to those inflicted in Great Britain. It is related 
that in the year 1525, a guilty baker "was condemned by 
* { Foods : Composition and Analysis,' pp. 1-18. 



INTRODUCTION. 3 

the court to be taken from the Chatelet prison to the cross 
before the Eglise des Cannes, and thence to the gate of 
Notre Dame and to other public places in Paris, in his shirt, 
having his head and feet bare, with small loaves hung from 
his neck, and holding a large wax candle, lighted, and in 
each of the places enumerated he was to make amende 
honorable, and ask mercy and pardon of God, the king, and 
of justice for .his fault." In Germany, during the fifteenth 
century, the bread adulterator, while not subjected to a 
religious penance, did not escape from a sufficiently prac- 
tical rebuke, as it was the frequent custom to put him in a 
basket attached to a long pole, and purge him of his mis- 
deeds by repeated immersions in a pool of water. 

Wine would also appear to have been exposed to 
fraudulent admixture in former times. Pliny mentions 
that in Rome considerable difficulty was experienced, even 
by the wealthy, in securing the pure article, and in Athens 
a public inspector was early appointed to prevent its adul- 
teration. In England, during the reign of Edward the 
Confessor, punishment for brewing bad beer was publicly 
enforced, and, in 1529, official "ale tasters" flourished, 
without whose approval the beverage was not to be sold. 
In later years, Addison, referring to the manipulators of 
wine of his time, writes : " These subtle philosophers are 
daily employed in the transmutation of liquors, and, by 
the power of magical drugs and incantations, raise under 
the streets of London the choicest products of the hills and 
valleys of France ; they squeeze Bordeaux out of the sloe 
and draw champagne from an apple." * In the fifteenth 
century, at Biebrich on the Rhine, a wine sophisticator was 
forced to drink six quarts of his own stock, and it is re- 
corded with due gravity that the test resulted fatally. Not 
very many years since, a manufacturer of wine at Rheims 
secured for his champagne, which was chiefly consumed in 
Wurtemberg, a high reputation, on' account of the unusually 

* The Tatler, 17 10. 

B 2 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 



exhilarating effects following its use. Suspicion being at 
length aroused, Liebig made a chemical examination of the 
article, and found that it was at least unique in its gaseous 
composition, being charged with one volume of carbonic acid 
gas and two volumes of nitrous oxide, or " laughing gas." 
These early attempts to control and punish adulteration, 
while often possessing interest on account of their quaint- 
ness, are chiefly important, as being the precursors of the 
protective legal measures which exist in more modern times. 
In 1 802 the Conseil de Salubrite was established in Paris, 
and this body has since developed into numerous health 
boards, to whom the French are at present mainly indebted 
for what immunity from food falsification they enjoy. A 
very decided advance upon all preceding methods to regu- 
late the public supply of food was signalised in 1 874 by the 
organisation in England of the Society of Public Analysts, 
who formulated a legal definition of adulteration, and issued 
the standards of purity which articles of general consump- 
tion should meet. This society was supported in its 
valuable services by the enactment, in 1875, of the Sale of 
Food and Drugs Act, which, with the amendment added 
in 1879, seems to embrace all necessary safeguards against 
the offences sought to be suppressed. The results of their 
work are tabulated as follows : — 



Year. 


Samples Examined. 


Samples Adulterated. 


Percentage 
of Adulterated. 


1875-6 

1877 

1878 

1879 
l88o 


15,989 

n,943 
15,107 
17,574 
17,919 


2,895 

2,371 
2,505 

3,032 
3,132 


18-10 
17-70 
16-58 
17-25 
17-47 



Of the total number of samples tested, the classification 
of adulterations is as below : — 

Per cent. 

Milk 50-98 

Butter 5 '73 

Groceries 12*90 



INTRODUCTION. 5 

Per cent. 

Drugs 2-52 

Wine, spirits, and beer 15*18 

Bread and flour 2*68 

Waters (including mineral) 9-18 

Sundries 0*83 

More recent data concerning the falsification of food in 
Great Britain are as follows : — 



Year. 


Samples Tested. 


Number Adulterated. 


Per cent, of 
Adulterated. 


l88l 
1882 
1883 


17,823 

19,439 
14,900 


2,495 
2,916 

2,453 


i4'o 
15-0 

16*4 



Of the samples of spirits and beer examined, about 25 
per cent, were adulterated. 

The results of the work done at the Paris Municipal 
Laboratory are the following : — 





Samples 
Tested. 


Good. 


Passable. 


Bad. 


Year. 


Not 
Injurious. 


Injurious. 


l88l 
1882 
1883 


6,258 
IO,752 
14,686 


1,565 
2,707 


1,523 
2,679 


2,6o8 
3,822 


562 

i,544 



The American characteristic of controlling their own 
personal affairs, and the resulting disinclination to resort to 
anything savouring of parental governmental interference, 
has probably had its effect in retarding early systematic 
action in the matter of adulteration. Sporadic attempts to 
secure legislative restrictions have, it is true, occasionally 
been made, but the laws passed were almost invariably of 
a specific nature, designed to meet some isolated case, and 
were destined to share the fate of most legislation of the 
kind — the particular adulteration being for the nonce sup- 
pressed, the law became practically a dead letter. Subse- 



6 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

quent effort to obtain more comprehensive laws inclined to 
the other extreme, and the enactments secured were so 
general in scope, and so deficient in details, that loopholes 
were inadvertently allowed to remain, through which the 
crafty adulterator often managed to escape. 

The present food legislation in the United States was to 
some extent anticipated in 1848 by an Act of Congress to 
secure the purity of imported drugs. In this enactment 
these are directed to be tested by the standards established 
by the various official pharmacopoeias ; twenty-three are 
specifically enumerated, the most important being Peruvian 
bark and opium. The Act is still in force. All previous 
efforts to regulate the quality of our food supply culminated 
in 1877 in formal action being taken by several of the 
State Boards of Health, at whose instance laws against 
adulteration were formulated, and chemists commissioned 
to collect and examine samples of alimentary substances, 
and furnish reports on the subject. These may be found 
in the publications of the same, notably in the volumes 
issued by the New York, Massachusetts, Michigan, and 
New Jersey Boards. The service rendered to the public 
by these investigations is almost incalculable, and the 
annual reports containing the results of the same are 
fraught with interest. For the first time we are placed in 
possession of trustworthy statistics, indicating the extent 
of food sophistication in this country. 

The annual report of the New York City Board of 
Health for the year 1885 furnishes the following sta- 
tistics : — 

Milk examined 7,006 samples. 

Adulterated milk destroyed 1,701 quarts. 

Candy destroyed 72,700 lbs. 

Cheese „ 5>7oo „ 

Packages of tea, ordered out of sale . . 266 

Canned goods condemned 39>905 » 

Pickles „ „ 4,000 

Coffee „ „ 4,100 „ 



INTRODUCTION. 7 

Pepper, spices, and baking powder .. 1,455 lbs. 

Meat and fish 790,410 „ 

Fruit 212,000 „ 

Total inspections 43*665 

Complaints made 5,786 

Fines collected $2,070 

Some of the results of the work performed by the New 
York State Board of Health during the year 1882 are 
tabulated below : — 



Article. 



Number of 
Samples 
Tested. 



Number 
found to be 
Adulterated. 



Per cent, of 
Adulterated. 



Butter .. .. 
Olive oil 
Baking powder 
Flour 
Spices .. 
Coffee (ground) 
Candy (yellow) 
Brandy .. 
Sugar (brown) 



40 
16 
84 
117 
180 
21 
10 
25 
67 



21 

9 

8 

8 

112 

19 
7 

16 

4 



52-50 

56-25 

9-52 

6-84 

62*22 

90-48 

70*00 

64*00 

5 '97 



In interpreting the significance of the foregoing table, it 
should be borne in mind that in the vast majority of cases 
the adulterations practised were not of an injurious nature, 
but consisted of a fraudulent admixture of some cheaper 
substance, the object being an increase of bulk or weight 
resulting in augmented profit. 

Much of the embarrassment experienced by health 
authorities in their efforts to bring persons guilty of food 
adulteration to punishment is due to the lack of explicit 
detail in the law. It is far easier to substantiate the fact of 
the adulteration than it is to produce the offender in court 
and secure his conviction. Numerous cases are on record 
illustrating the peculiar contingencies which at times arise. 
Probably with the best intention, a milk vendor labelled his 
wagon, " Country skimmed milk, sold as adulterated ; " an 
inspector bought a sample, not noticing the label, and the 



8 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

magistrate convicted the vendor, doubtless on the ground 
that due attention had not been directed to the advertise- 
ment* Chief Justice Cockburn, in referring to an 
analogous case, said : "If the seller chooses to sell an 
article with a certain admixture, the onus lies on him to 
prove that the purchaser knew what he was purchasing." 
In most instances, when in ostensible compliance with the 
law, a package bears a label purporting to state the actual 
nature of its contents, the label is either printed in such 
small type, or is placed in so inconspicuous a position, that 
the buyer is in ignorance of its existence at the time the 
purchase is made. A confectioner in Boston was suspected 
of selling adulterated candy, and while it was proved that a 
sample bought of him contained a dangerous proportion of 
a poisonous pigment — chromate of lead — he escaped 
conviction, on the plea that candy was not an article of 
food within the meaning of the existing law, which, it seems, 
has since been amended so as to embrace cases of this 
kind. 

In a recent action brought by the New York Board of 
Health to obtain an injunction against the sale of certain 
Ping Suey teas, it was held by the court, in refusing to 
grant the same, that, although the teas in question had 
been clearly shown to be adulterated with gypsum, Prussian 
blue, sand, etc., it was likewise necessary to prove that the 
effect of these admixtures was such as to constitute a 
serious danger to public health. 

As a result of the publicity lately given to the subject of 
food adulteration, a popular impression has been produced 
that any substance employed as an adulterant of, or a 
substitute for another, is to be avoided per se. Perhaps the 
common belief that for all purposes cotton-seed oil is 
inferior to olive oil, and oleomargarine to butter, is the most 
striking illustration of this tendency. Now, as a matter of 
fact, pure cotton-seed oil, as at present found on the market, 
* 'Analyst,' 1880, p. 225. 



INTRODUCTION. 9 

is less liable to become rancid than the product of the olive, 
and, for many culinary uses, it is at least quite as service- 
able. Absolute cleanliness is a sine qua non in the successful 
manufacture of oleomargarine, and, as an economical 
substitute for the inferior kinds of butter often exposed for 
sale, its discovery cannot justly be regarded a misfortune. 
The sale of these products, under their true name, should 
not only be allowed, but under some circumstances even 
encouraged. 

The benefits accruing to the community by reason of 
the service of our State Boards of Health are so evident 
and so important, that it is almost incredible that these 
bodies have not been put in possession of all the facilities 
necessary for their work. It would appear, however, that, 
while our legislators have been induced to enact good laws 
regulating adulteration, they have often signally failed to 
fulfil all the requirements indispensable to the efficient 
execution of the same. Without entering into the details 
of this branch of the subject, it is proper to observe that 
owing to the lack of necessary funds, great pecuniary 
embarrassment has been experienced in securing the services 
of a competent corps of experts, who, in addition to their 
inadequate remuneration, must incur the expenses of 
purchasing samples. The appointment of public analysts 
in our larger towns and cities — as has for some time been 
the case in Great Britain — is certainly to be urgently 
recommended. 

All attempts to awaken public interest in the subject of 
food adulteration are of any real service only as they may 
be conducive to the adoption of more advanced and 
improved measures for the suppression of the practice. 

In general, the adulterations to which food is subjected 
may be divided into those positively deleterious to health 
(such as the colouring of confectionery by chrome yellow), 
those which are only fraudulent (such as the addition of 
flour to mustard), and those which may be fairly considered 



IO FOOD ADULTERATION. 

as accidental (such as the presence of a small amount of 
sand in tea). It would exceed the limits of this volume to 
enter into a comprehensive review of the almost endless 
varieties of adulteration. The following list embraces the 
articles most exposed to falsification, together with the 
adulterants commonly employed : — 

Article. Common Adulterants. 

Baker's chemicals .. Starch, alum. 

Bread and flour . . . . Other meals, alum. 

Butter .. .. .. .. Water, colouring matter, oleomargarine, and 

other fats. 

Canned foods .. .. Metallic poisons. 

Cheese Lard, oleomargarine, cotton-seed oil, metallic 

salts (in rind). 

Cocoa and chocolate . . Sugar, starch, flour. 

Coffee , Chicory, peas, rye, corn, colouring matters. 

Confectionery . ; . . Starch-sugar, starch, artificial essences, poison- 
ous pigments, terra* alba, plaster of Paris. 

Honey Glucose-syrup, cane sugar. 

Malt liquors Artificial glucose and bitters, sodium bicar- 
bonate, salt. 

Milk .. ... .. .. Water, and removal of cream. 

Mustard Flour, turmeric, cayenne. 

Olive oil Cotton-seed and other oils. 

Pepper Various ground meals. 

Pickles Salts of copper. 

Spices Pepper-dust, starch, flour. 

Spirits Water, fusil oil, aromatic ethers, burnt sugar. 

Sugar Starch-sugar. 

Tea .. .... .. Exhausted tea leaves, foreign leaves, indigo, 

Prussian blue, gypsum, soap-stone, sand. 

Vinegar Water, sulphuric acid. 

Wine Water, spirits, coal tar and vegetable colours, 

factitious imitations. 

The above table includes those admixtures which have 
actually been detected by chemists of repute within the 
past few years, and omits many rather sensational forms of 
adulteration mentioned in the early treatises on the subject, 
the practice of which appears to have been discontinued. 

In the following pages, some of the more important 



INTRODUCTION. 1 1 

articles of food and drink are described with especial 
reference to their chemical relations and the ordinary- 
adulterations to which they are exposed. It should be 
added, that many of the methods of examination given are 
quoted in a condensed form from the more extensive works 
on food-analysis. 



12 FOOD ADULTERATION. 



TEA. 

The early history of tea is probably contemporary with 
that of China, although, in that country, the first authentic 
mention of the plant was as late as A.D. 350; while, in 
European literature, its earliest notice occurs in the year 
I55°- The first important consignment of tea into 
England took place in 1657. Chinese tea made its appear- 
ance in the United States in 171 1 ; in 1858, the importa- 
tion of Japan tea began. During the season of 1883-1884, 
the importation of tea into this country * was — from China, 
30J millions of pounds ; from Japan, 32J millions of 
pounds. Recently, numerous shipments of Indian tea 
have been placed upon our markets, the quality of which 
compares very favourably with the older and better known 
varieties. During the past four years the consumption of 
tea in this country has materially decreased ; whilst that 
of coffee has undergone an almost corresponding increase. 
The per capita consumption of tea and coffee in the 
United States as compared with that of Great Britain is 
as follows : — United States, tea, 1 * 16 ; coffee, 9*50 ; Great 
Britain, tea, 4*62; coffee, 0*89. In the year 1885 our 
importation of tea approximated 82 millions of pounds, 
that of coffee being nearly 455 millions of pounds. 

Genuine tea is the prepared leaf of Thea sinensis. The 
growth of the tea shrub is usually restricted by artificial 
means to a height of from three to five feet. It is ready 
for picking at the end of the third year, the average life of 
the plant being about ten years. The first picking is made 
in the middle of April, the second on the 1st of May, the 
third in the middle of July, and occasionally a fourth during 

* I.e. the United States. 



TEA. 1 3 

the month of August. The first pickings, which obviously 
consist of the young and more tender leaves, furnish the 
finer grades of tea. After sorting, the natural moisture of 
the leaves is partially removed by pressing and rolling ; 
they are next more thoroughly dried by gently roasting in 
iron pans for a few minutes. The leaves are then rolled 
on bamboo tables and again roasted, occasionally re-rolled 
and re-fired, and finally separated into the various kinds, 
such as twankay, hyson, young hyson, gunpowder, etc., 
by passing through sieves. The difference between green 
and black tea is mainly due to the fact that the former is 
dried shortly after gathering, and then rolled and carefully 
fired, whereas black tea is first made up into heaps, which 
are exposed to the air for some time before firing and 
allowed to undergo a species of fermentation, resulting in 
the conversion of its original olive-green into a black colour. 
The methods employed in the preparation of the tea are 
somewhat modified in their details in the different tea 
districts of China and Japan. In Japan two varieties of 
the leaf are used, which are termed " otoko " (male), and 
" ona " (female), the former being larger and coarser than 
the latter. After picking, the leaves are steamed by placing 
them in a wooden tray suspended over boiling water, in 
which they are allowed to remain for about half a minute. 
They are next thrown upon a tough paper membrane 
attached to the top of an oven, which is heated by burning 
charcoal covered with ashes, where they are constantly 
manipulated by the hand until the light-green colour turns 
to a dark olive, and the leaves have become spirally twisted. 
After this "firing," the tea is dried at a low temperature 
for from four to eight hours ; it is next sorted by passing 
through sieves, and is then turned over to the " go-downs," 
or warehouses of the foreigners, where the facing process is 
carried on by placing the tea in large metallic bowls, heated 
by means of a furnace, and gradually adding the various 
pigments used, the mixture being continually stirred. The 



14 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

tea is finally again sorted by means of large fans, and is 
now ready for packing and shipment. 

The sophistications to which tea is exposed have received 
the careful attention of chemists, but not to a greater extent 
than the importance of the subject merits ; indeed, it is safe 
to assert that no article among alimentary substances has 
been, at least in past years, more subjected to adulteration. 
The falsifications which are practised to no inconsiderable 
extent may be conveniently divided into three classes. 

ist. Additions made for the purpose of giving increased 
weight and bulk, which include foreign leaves and spent tea 
leaves, and also certain mineral substances, such as metallic 
iron, sand, brick-dust, etc. 

2nd. Substances added in order to produce an artificial 
appearance of strength to the tea decoction, catechu and 
other bodies rich in tannin being mainly resorted to for 
this purpose. 

3rd. The imparting of a bright and shining appearance 
to an inferior tea by means of various colouring mixtures 
or " facings," which operation, while sometimes practised 
upon black tea, is far more common with the green variety. 
This adulteration involves the use of soap-stone, gypsum, 
China clay, Prussian blue, indigo, turmeric, and graphite. 
The author lately received from Japan several samples of 
the preparations employed for facing the tea in that country, 
the composition of which was shown by analysis to be 
essentially as follows : — 

1. Magnesium silicate (soap-stone). 

2. Calcium sulphate (gypsum). 

3. Turmeric. 

4. Indigo. 

5. Ferric ferrocyanide (Prussian blue). 

6. Soap-stone, 47 * 5 per cent. ; gypsum, 47 ' 5 per cent. ; 
Prussian blue, 5 per cent. 

7. Soap-stone, 45 per cent. ; gypsum, 45 per cent. ; 
Prussian blue, 10 per cent. 



TEA. 



15 



8. Soap-stone, 75 per cent. ; indigo, 25 per cent. 

9. Soap-stone, 60 per cent ; indigo, 40 per cent. 

The " facing " or " blooming " of tea is often accomplished 
by simply placing it in an iron pan, heated by a fire, and 
rapidly incorporating with it one of the preceding mixtures 
(Nos. 6, 7, 8, or 9), in the proportion of about half a 
dram to seven or eight pounds of the tea, a brisk stirring 
being maintained until the desired shade of colour is pro- 
duced. 

Some of the above forms of sophistication usually go 
together ; — thus exhausted tea is restored by facing. The 
collection of the spent leaves takes place in China. Much 
of the facing was, until about three years since, done in New 
York city, and constituted a regular branch of business, 
which included among its operations such metamorphoses 
as the conversion of a green tea into a black, and vice 
versa. 

According to James Bell,* the composition of genuine tea 
is as follows : — 





Congou. 


Young Hyson. 


Moisture 

Theine 

Albumin , insoluble 

„ soluble 

Extractive, by alcohol .. 

Dextrine, or gum 

Pectin and pectic acid .. 

Tannin 

Chlorophyll and resin .. 

Cellulose 

Ash 


per cent. 

8-20 

3*24 

17-20 

0*70 

6-79 

2* 60 
16-40 

4 # 6o 
34.0O 

6*27 


per cent. 
5.96 

2'33 
16-83 
o-8o 
7-05 
0-50 

3'22 
27T4 

4-20 

25-90 

6-07 




100*00 


IOO'OO 



The ash of samples of uncoloured and unfaced tea, and 
of spent tea analysed by the author, had the following com- 
position : — 

* ' Chemistry of Foods.' 



i6 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 





Oolong 
(average of 
50 samples) . 


Japan. 


Spent Black 
Tea. 


Total ash 

Soluble in water 

Per cent, soluble 


per cent. 

6" 04 

3'44 
57*00 


per cent. 
5*58 

3-60 
64-55 


per cent. 
2'52 
C28 

II'II 



Co7nposition. 



Silica .. 

Chlorine 

Potassa.. 

Soda 

Ferric oxide . . 

Alumina 

Manganic oxide 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Phosphoric acid 

Sulphuric acid 

Carbonic acid 



n-30 
i-53 

37*46 
1-40 
i*8o 
5-13 

2* IO 

9-43 

8-oo 

12-27 

4*18 

5-4o 



100 * 00 



9-30 

i-6o 

41-63 

I'I2 



1*12 

4*26 
I-30 

8-i8 

5'33 
16-62 

3-64 
5-90 



100 * 00 



27-75 
0-79 



16-00 
19-66 

II -20 

15-80 

I- IO 

6*70 



99- 00 



" Tea dust " affords a high proportion of ash, sometimes 
amounting to 20 per cent., the composition of which is 
usually strikingly different from that of the ash of ordinary 
tea. It is deficient in potassa and phosphoric acid, and the 
amount of ash insoluble in water and acids is very exces- 
sive, as is shown by the following analysis, made by the 

author : — 

Ash of Tea Dust. 

Per cent. 

Insoluble in acids 60*30 

Alumina and ferric oxide .. 6- 60 

Lime 5* 10 

Magnesia 7*89 

Potassa ii'oo 

Soda 2-51 

Sulphuric acid 1*23 

Chlorine 0*63 

Phosphoric acid 4"73 

99-99 
Ash insoluble in water 8o*oo 









PLATE II. 




TEA LEAVES. 



TEA. 1 7 

The portion of ash insoluble in acids consisted of silica, 
clay, and soapstone, indicating that the ash of tea dust is 
largely composed of the mineral substances employed for 
" facing " purposes. 

The characteristics of the ash of unspent tea are the 
presence of manganic oxide, the large proportion of potas- 
sium salts present, and the solubility of the ash in water. 
The amount of ash in genuine tea ranges from five to 
six per cent. In the absence of exhausted leaves, it 
has been found that the finer sorts of tea afford a smaller 
proportion of ash than the inferior grades. It will be 
noticed that spent tea ash exhibits a marked increase in 
the proportion of insoluble compounds (silica, alumina, 
and ferric oxide), as well as a total absence of potassium 
salts. 

The presence of foreign leaves, and, in some instances, of 
mineral adulterants in tea is best detected by means of a 
microscopical examination of the suspected sample. The 
genuine tea-leaf is characterised by its peculiar serrations 
and venations. Its border exhibits serrations which stop a 
little short of the stalk, while the venations extend from 
the central rib, nearly parallel to one another, but turn just 
before reaching the border of the leaf. 

Plate I. (Frontispiece) is a photogravure of a twig of the 
tea plant, in possession of the author. The leaves are of 
natural size, but the majority are of a greater maturity 
than those used in the preparation of tea, which more 
resemble in size the few upper leaves. 

Plate IL shows more distinctly the serrations and vena- 
tions of the tea-leaf. The Chinese are said to occasionally 
employ ash, camelia, and dog-rose leaves for admixture 
with tea, and the product is stated to have formerly been 
subjected in England to the addition of sloe, willow, beech, 
hawthorn, oak, etc. For scenting purposes, chulan flowers, 
rose, jasmine, and orange leaves, have been employed. 
The writer has lately received from Japan specimens o( 

C 



1 8 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

willow, wisteria, te-nio-ki, and other leaves which at one 
time were used in that country as admixtures. 

Plate III. exhibits some of these leaves, two genuine 
Japan tea-leaves being included for purpose of comparison. 
The leaves represented in this plate are : I, beech ; 2, haw- 
thorn ; 3, rose; 4, Japan tea; 5, willow; 6, te-mo-ki ; 
7, elm ; 8, wisteria ; 9, poplar. From very recent reports of 
the American consuls in Japan and China, it would appear 
that the addition of foreign leaves to tea is at present but 
seldom resorted to, and this accords with the author's 
experience in the testing of the teas imported into this 
country. 

In 1884, the Japanese Government made it a criminal 
offence to adulterate tea, and instituted "tea guilds," 
which are governed by very stringent laws, and of which 
most dealers of repute are members. The facing of tea 
does not appear, however, to have been considered an 
adulteration, its continued practice being justified by the 
plea that otherwise Japan teas would not suit the taste of 
American consumers. 

In the microscopic examination of tea, the sample should 
be moistened with hot water and spread out on a glass 
plate, and then submitted to a careful inspection, especial 
attention being directed to the general outline of the leaf 
and its serrations and venations. The presence of ex- 
hausted tea-leaves may often be detected by their soft 
texture and generally disintegrated appearance. If a 
considerable quantity of the tea be placed in a long glass 
cylinder and agitated with cold water, the colouring 
and other abnormal substances frequently become de- 
tached, and either rise to the surface of the liquid as a sort 
of scum, or fall to the bottom as a sediment. In this way 
Prussian blue, indigo, soapstone, gypsum, sand, and 
turmeric can often be separated, and subsequently recog- 
nised by their characteristic appearance under the micro- 
scope. The separated substances should also be subjected 






PLATE III 




TEA AND OTHER LEAVES. 



TEA. 19 

to a chemical examination. Prussian blue is detected by- 
heating with a solution of sodium hydroxide, filtering, 
acidulating the filtrate with acetic acid, and then adding 
ferric chloride, when, in its presence, a blue colour will be 
produced. Indigo is best recognised by the microscopic 
examination. It is not decolorised by caustic alkali, but 
it dissolves in sulphuric acid to a blue liquid. Soapstone, 
gypsum, sand, and metallic iron, are identified by means of 
the usual chemical reactions. A compound very aptly 
termed " Lie-tea," is sometimes met with. It forms little 
pellets, consisting of tea-dust mixed with foreign leaves, 
sand, etc., and held together by means of gum or starch. 
This falls to powder if treated with boiling water. In the 
presence of catechu, the tea infusion usually assumes a 
muddy appearance upon standing. In case iron salts 
have been employed to deepen the colour of the infusion, 
they can be detected by treating the ground tea-leaves with 
acetic acid, and testing the filtered solution with potassium 
ferrocyanide. Tea should not turn black upon immersion 
in hydrosulphuric acid water, nor should it impart a blue 
colour to ammonia water. The infusion should be amber- 
coloured, and not become reddened by the addition of an 
acid. 

The United States Tea Adulteration Act was passed by 
Congress in 1883. The enactment of this law was largely 
due to the exertions of prominent tea merchants, whose 
business interests were seriously affected by the sale 
(principally in trade auctions) of the debased or spurious 
article. It is stated in the official report of the United 
States Tea Examiner at New York City, that from March 
1883 to December of the same year, 856,281 packages 
(about four millions of pounds) of tea were inspected, of 
which 7000 packages (325,000 pounds) were rejected as 
unfit for consumption. Since the enforcement in New 
York City of the Tea Adulteration Act, nearly 2000 
samples of tea have been chemically tested under the 

C 2 



20 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

direction of the author. The proportion grossly adulterated 
has been a little over nine per cent. But this does not 
apply to the total amount imported, since only those 
samples which were somewhat suspicious in appearance 
were submitted for analysis. As the result of the past two 
years' experience in the chemical examination of tea, the 
prevailing adulterations were found to be of two kinds — 
the admixture of spent tea-leaves, and the application 
to the tea of a facing preparation. A natural green tea 
possesses a dull hue, and is but seldom met with in the 
trade ; some Moyunes and uncoloured Japans (which 
latter, properly speaking, is not a green tea) being almost 
the only varieties not exhibiting the bright metallic lustre 
due to the facing process. The addition of foreign leaves 
was detected only in a few instances ; the presence of sand 
and gravel occurred far more frequently. Apropos of the 
practical utility of Governmental sanitary legislation, it can 
be stated that, since the enforcement of the Adulteration 
Act, the tea imported into the city of New York has very 
perceptibly improved in quality. 

Attempts in tea culture are being made in the United 
States of Columbia, S.A. A specimen of the prepared 
plant received by the writer, differed greatly in appearance 
from the Chinese and Japanese products. The leaves, 
which had not been rolled but were quite flat, possessed 
a light pea-green colour and a fine but rather faint aroma. 
An examination indicated that the tea, although very 
delicate in quality, was seriously deficient in body. 

The analysis showed : — ■■ 

Per cent. 

Moisture 6*70 

Total ash 4-82 

Ash soluble in water 1*62 

Ash insoluble in water 3*20 

Ash insoluble in acid o*i6 

Extract 27^40 

Tannic acid 4*31 

Theine .. o*66 

Insoluble leaf 65*90 



TEA. 2 1 

The following Tea Assay, while not including the deter- 
minations of all the proximate constituents of the plant, will, 
it is believed, in most instances suffice to indicate to the 
analyst the presence of spent leaves, mineral colouring 
matters, and other inorganic adulterations. 

Theine {Caffeine), C 8 H 10 N 4 O 2 . — Contrary to the once 
general belief, there does not always exist a direct relation 
between the quality of tea (at least so far as this is indicated 
by its market price) and the proportion of theine contained, 
although the physiological value of the plant is doubtless 
due to the presence of this alkaloid. 

The commercial tea-taster is almost entirely guided in 
his judgment in regard to the value of a sample of tea by 
the age of the leaf, and by the flavour or bouquet produced 
upon " drawing," and this latter quality is to be mainly 
ascribed to the volatile oil. 

The following process will serve for the estimation of 
theine : — A weighed quantity of the tea is boiled with 
distilled water until the filtered infusion ceases to exhibit 
any colour. The filtrate is evaporated on a water bath to 
the consistence of a syrup ; it is next mixed with calcined 
magnesia to alkaline reaction, and carefully evaporated to 
dryness. 

The residue obtained is then finely powdered, digested 
for a day or so with ether (or chloroform) and filtered, the 
remaining undissolved matter being again digested with a 
fresh quantity of ether, so long as any further solution of 
theine takes place. The ether is now removed from the 
united filtrates by distillation, whereupon the theine will be 
obtained in a fairly pure condition. 

Theine contains a very large proportion of nitrogen 
(almost 29 per cent.), and Wanklyn * has suggested the 
application of his ammonia process (see p. 205) to the 
analysis of tea. Genuine tea is stated to yield from 0*7 to 
o*8 per cent of total ammonia, when tested in this manner, 

* ' Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa Analysis.' 



22 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

Volatile Oil. — Ten grammes of the tea are distilled with 
water; the distillate is filtered, saturated with calcium 
chloride, then well agitated with ether, and allowed to re- 
main at rest for some time. The ethereal solution is subse- 
quently drawn off, and spontaneously evaporated in a 
weighed capsule. The increase in weight gives approxi- 
mately the amount of oil present. A sample of good black 
tea yielded by this method o ■ Sy per cent of volatile oil 

Tannin. — Two grammes of the well-averaged sample are 
boiled with ioo c.c. of water, for about an hour, and the in- 
fusion filtered, the undissolved matter remaining upon the 
filter being thoroughly washed with hot water, and the 
washings added to the solution first obtained. If necessary, 
the liquid is next reduced to a volume of ioo c.c. by evapo- 
ration over a water-bath. It is then heated to boiling, and 
25 c.c. of a solution of cupric acetate added. The copper 
solution is prepared by dissolving five grammes of the salt 
in 100 c.c. of water, and filtering. The precipitate formed 
is separated by filtration, well washed, dried, and ignited in 
a porcelain crucible. A little nitric acid is then added and 
the ignition repeated. One gramme of the cupric oxide 
thus obtained represents 1 * 305 grammes of tannin. For 
the estimation of spent leaves (especially in black tea), Mr. 
Allen suggests the following formula, in which E represents 
the percentage of spent tea, and T the percentage of tannin 
found : — 

_. (10 -T) 100 
E = g 

The Ash. — a. Total Ash. — Five grammes of the sample are 
placed in a platinum dish and ignited over a Bunsen burner 
until complete incineration is accomplished. The vessel is 
allowed to cool in a desiccator, and is then quickly weighed. 
In genuine tea the total ash should not be much below 
5 per cent., nor much above 6 per cent, and it should not be 
magnetic. In faced teas the proportion of total ash is some- 
times 10 per cent ; in "lie-tea " it may reach 30 per cent. ; 



TEA. 23 

while in spent tea it frequently falls below 3 per cent, the 
ash in this case being abnormally rich in lime salts, and 
poor in potassium salts. 

b. Ash insoluble in water. — The total ash obtained in a 
is washed into a beaker, and boiled with water for a con- 
siderable time. It is then brought upon a filter, washed, 
dried, ignited, and weighed. In unadulterated tea it rarely 
exceeds 3 per cent, of the sample taken. 

c. Ash soluble in water. — This proportion is obtained by 
deducting the ash insoluble in water from the total ash. 
Genuine tea contains from 3 per cent, to 3 * 5 per cent, of 
soluble ash, or at least 50 per cent, of the total ash, whereas 
in exhausted tea the amount is often but 0*5 per cent. 
The following formula has been proposed for the calcula- 
tion of the percentage of spent tea E, where S is the per- 
centage of soluble ash obtained : — 

E = (6-2 S) 20. 

A sample prepared by averaging several good grades of 
black tea, was mixed with an equal quantity of exhausted 
tea-leaves. The proportion of soluble ash in the mixture 
was found to be 1*8 per cent. According to the above for- 
mula, the spent tea present would be 48 per cent, or within 
2 per cent, of the actual amount. 

d. Ash insoluble in acid.— The ash insoluble in water is 
boiled with dilute hydrochloric acid, and the residue separa- 
ted by filtration, washed, ignited, and weighed. In pure 
tea, the remaining ash ranges between 0*3 and 0*8 per 
cent. ; in faced tea, or in tea adulterated by the addition 
of sand, etc., it may reach the proportion of 2 to 5 per cent 
Fragments of silica and brickdust are occasionally found in 
the ash insoluble in acid. 

The Extract. — Two grammes of the carefully sampled tea 
are boiled with water until all soluble matter is dissolved, 
more water being added from time to time to prevent the 
solution becoming too concentrated. The operation may 



24 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

also be conducted in a flask connected with an ascending 
Liebig's condenser. In either case, the infusion obtained 
is poured upon a tared filter, and the remaining insoluble 
leaf repeatedly washed with hot water so long as the filtered 
liquor shows a colour. The filtrate is now diluted to a 
volume of 200 c.c, and of this 50 c.c, are taken and evapo- 
rated in a weighed dish until the weight of the extract 
remains constant. Genuine tea affords from 32 to 50 per 
cent, of extract, according to its age and quality ; in spent 
tea the proportion of extract will naturally be greatly re- 
duced. Mr. Allen employs the formula below for deter- 
mining the percentage of spent tea E in a sample, R 
representing the percentage of extract found. 

(32 - R) 100 



E = 



30 



In order to test the practical value of this equation, a 
sample of black tea was mixed with 50 per cent, of spent 
tea-leaves, and a determination made of the extract afforded. 
The calculated proportion of spent tea was 44 per cent, 
instead of 50 per cent It should be added, however, that 
the tea taken subsequently proved to be of a very superior 
quality, yielding an extract of 40 per cent. 

Gum (Dextrine). — The proportion of gum contained in 
genuine tea is usually inconsiderable. Its separation is 
effected by treating the concentrated extract with alcohol, 
allowing the mixture to stand at rest for a few hours, and 
collecting the precipitated gum upon a tared filter, and 
carefully drying and weighing it. As a certain amount of 
mineral matter is generally present in the precipitate, this 
should afterwards be incinerated and a deduction made for 
the ash thus obtained. A more satisfactory method is to 
treat the separated dextrine with very dilute sulphuric acid, 
and estimate the amount of glucose formed by means of 
Fehling's solution (see p. 37) ; 100 parts of glucose are 
equivalent to 90 parts of dextrine. 



TEA. 25 

Insoluble Leaf. — The insoluble leaf as obtained in the 
determination of the extract, together with the weighed 
filter, is placed in an air-bath, and dried for at least eight 
hours at a temperature of no,°* and then weighed. In 
genuine tea the amount of insoluble leaf ranges from 47 to 
54 per cent. ; in exhausted tea it may reach a proportion 
of 75 per cent, or more. It should be noted that in the 
foregoing estimations the tea is taken in its ordinary air- 
dried condition. If it be desired to reduce the results 
obtained to a dry basis, an allowance for the moisture 
present in the sample (an average of 6 to 8 per cent.), or a 
direct determination of the same must be made. 

The following tabulation gives the constituents of genuine 
tea, so far as the ash, extract, and insoluble leaf are in- 
volved : — 

Total ash ranges between 4*7 and 6*2 per cent. 

Ash soluble in water ranges between 3 and 3 • 5 per cent. ; 
should equal 50 per cent of total ash. 

Ash insoluble in water, not over 3 per cent. 

Ash insoluble in acid ranges between 0*3 and o*8 per 
cent. 

Extract} ranges between 32 and 50 per cent. 

Insoluble leaf ranges between 43 and 58 per cent. 

The table below may prove useful as indicating the 
requirements to be exacted when the chemist is asked to 
give an opinion concerning the presence of facing admix- 
tures, or of exhausted or foreign leaves in a sample of tea. 

Total ash should not be under 4*5 per cent, or above 
7 per cent. 

Ash soluble in water should not be under 40 per cent, of 
total ash. 

* The degrees of temperature given in the text refer to the Centigrade 
thermometer ; their equivalents on the Fahrenheit scale can be 

obtained by means of the formula - C.° + 32 = F.°. 

f In low grade, but unadulterated Congou tea, the extract occa- 
sionally falls so low as 25 per cent. 



26 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 



Ash insoluble in water should not be over 3-25 per 
cent 

Ash insoluble in acid should not be over 1 per cent. 

Extract (excepting in poor varieties of Congou tea) 
should not be under 30 per cent. 

Insoluble Leaf should not be over 60 per cent. 

The British Society of Public Analysts adopt : — 

Total ash (dry basis), not over 8 per cent, (at least 
3 per cent, should be soluble in water). 

Extract (tea as sold), not under 30 per cent. 

Below are the proportions of total ash, ash soluble in 
water, and extract found in 850 samples of tea (mostly in- 
ferior and faced), examined under the direction of the 
author in the U.S. Laboratory : — 
Total Ash. 



Range .. 


5 to 5£ 


5! to 6 


6 to 61 


6i to 7 


7 to 8 


8 per cent. 




per cent. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


and over. 


Number .. 


21 


76 


102 


194 


421 


36 


Per cent. . . 


2-47 


8-94 


I2'00 


21*64 


49*53 


4' 23 



Ash Soluble in Water. 



Range 

Number 
Per cent. 



Under 2 

per cent. 

25 

2-94 



2 to 3 per 

cent. 

649 

76*35 



3 to 3h per 
cent. 

157 
18-70 



3I per cent, 
and over. 

19 
2*23 



Extract. 



Range 

Number 
Per cent. 



20 to 25 

per cent. 

21 

2*47 



25 to 30 per 
cent. 

151 
17-76 



30 to 35 per 
cent. 

499 
58-70 



35 to 40 per 

cent. 

179 

21*05 



The following tabulation exhibits the results obtained by 
the examination of various grades of Formosa, Congou, 
Young Hyson, Gunpowder, and Japan tea, made, under 
the supervision of the writer, by Dr. J. F. Davis. 



TEA. 



2 7 



It will be noticed, if the same varieties of tea be com- 
pared, that, with some exceptions, their commercial value is 
directly proportional to the percentages of soluble ash, 
extract, tannin, and theine contained. 



Variety. 


& 

1 

rt ft 
2 


J 

bJU 
c « 

°J 

IS. 

S 3 


.4 

p°6 

H 

m 

II 


J 

£> 

!& 

E p 






1 


E 

p 

p 

1 


a 




p 



c <0 

II 

•* bo 


a 


>> 

Wirt 
a £ 
§ Q 

>.£ 


6 
a 

I s - 


c 


01 
>> 

a . 

c ps 




%U 


£C/3 


$0 


S w 


a 



c 



p 




S2& 


£fa 


§w 


^5 




fa 


fa 


fa 


fa 


O 


u 


U 


fa 


fa 


w 


H 




c. 


c. 


c. 


c. 





c. 


c. 


c. 


C 


c. 


c. 


Price per lb. 


70 


28 


55 


24 


65 to 7c 


> 24 


14 


28 to 30 


25 


17 to 18 


14 


(wholesale). 


























p. c. 


p. c. 


p. c. 


p. c. 


p. c. 


p. c. 


p.c. 


p.c. 


p.c. 


p. c. 


p. c. 


Total ash . . 


6-50 


5*9 


5 5*80 


6*34 


6*22 


6- 3 6 


6*58 


6*26 


5-86 


5-84 


6-20 


Ash soluble in 


3*60 


2-8 


6 3*12 


3-60 


3-56 


3*oo 


2*88 


3-60 


3-28 


3-36 


3'34 


water. 
























Ash insoluble 


2-90 


3'i 


2-68 


2*74 


2-66 


3'36 


3*70 


2-66 


2*58 


2-48 


2*86 


in water. 
























Ash insoluble 


o-86 


0*9 


4 0-56 


o-66 


0-56 


o-66 


1*06 


0*64 


0*58 


0*50 


0*52 


in acids. 
























Extract 


42-00 


37'4 


043-20 


40-60 


34-60 


29*60 


26-20 


40*60 


41*00 


39-80 


30-40 


Insoluble leaf 


54 '90 


59'5 


5 52-7o 


56-55 


60-75 


64-80 


68-75 


55-5o 


57-7o 


57-15 


61-95 


Tannin 


18 -66 


163 


1 18-00 


16*05 


14-87 


13-70 


12*26 


18*00 


19-96 


18-53 


16*99 


Theine 


3*46 


2*2 


3 2*26 


i*39 


3-29 


2-23 


2*35 


2*26 


2*30 


i*i6 


1*08 








Un- 


Coloured 


Coloured 


Japan Dust. 


Variety. 


Choice 
Gun- 
powder. 


Third 
Gun- 
powder. 


coloured 

Japan, 

Choicest, 

First 


Japan, 

Good 

Medium, 

First 


Japan, 
Good 

Medium, 
Third 




Coloured, 
Fine. 


Un- 
coloured, 








Picking. 


Picking. 


Picking. 


Common. 




c. 


c. 


c. 


c. 


c. 


c. 


c. 


Price per lb. 


35 


23 


30 


22 


19 


9 


6 


(wholesale). 


















p.c. 


p. c 


p. c. 


p.c. 


p. c. 


p. c 


p. c. 


Total ash . . 


5-76 


5So 


5*44 


6*o6 


6-50 


9-74 


6-66 


Ash soluble 


3-26 


3*14 


3*46 


2-84 


2-90 


1*48 


2*78 


in water. 
















Ash insoluble 


2-50 


2-36 


1-98 


3 -22 


3-60 


. 8-26 


3'88 


in water. 
















Ash insoluble 
in acids. 


0-54 


0-52 


0*46 


0*78 


0*96 


3-90 


1*46 


Extract 


39- 60 


36-00 


39-20 


36-40 


33' 40 


31*80 


32*80 


Insoluble leaf 


56-70 


57-9o 


56-85 


57-io 


59'9o 


6i*45 


60*05 


Tannin 


20*09 


17-87 


21-92 


18*27 


17*35 


15*66 


17*74 


Theine . . 


1-78 


1-42 


i'54 


i*66 


0*74 


0-82 


2-43 



28 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 



The following analyses of several kinds of spurious tea, 
received from the U.S. Consuls at Canton and Nagasaki 
(Japan), have been made by the author : — 





1. 


2. 


3. 


4. 


Total ash .. _ 

Ash insoluble in water . . 
Ash soluble in water 
Ash insoluble in acid .. 

Extract 

Gum 

Insoluble leaf 

Tannin 

Theine 


per cent- 

8*62 
7*98 
0*64 
3*92 

7*73 
10*67 
70*60 

3'i3 
0*58 


per cent 
8*90 
6*04 

i*86 

3'i8 
14*00 

7-30 
70*55 

8*oi 

nil 


per cent. 

7*95 
4*95 
3-00 
i*88 
12*76 

II'OO 

67*00 

14*50 

o*i6 


per cent. 
12*58 

8*74 
3*84 
6*6o 

22* IO 
II*40 

6o*io 

15*64 

0*12 



1. Partially exhausted and refired tea-leaves, known as 
" Ching Suey " (clear water), which name doubtless has 
reference to the weakness of a beverage prepared from this 
article. 

2. " Lie tea," made from Wampan leaves* 

3. A mixture of 10 per cent, green tea and 90 per cent. 
" lie tea." It is sometimes sold as " Imperial " or " Gun- 
powder " tea, and is stated to be extensively consumed in 
France and Spain. 

4. " Scented caper tea," consisting of tea-dust made up 
into little shot-like pellets by means of " Congou paste " 
(z. e. boiled rice), and said to be chiefly used in the English 
coal-mining districts. 

The following are the results of the analysis by 
American chemists of. samples representing 2414 packages 
of Indian tea. 

Per cent. Average per cent. 

Moisture 5*830 to 6*325 .. 5*938 

Extract 37*800 „ 40*350 .. 38*841 

Total ash 5-050,, 6*024 .. 5*613 

Ash soluble in water .. 3*122,, 4*280 .. 3-516 

Ash insoluble in water 1*890,, 2*255 .. 2*092 

Ash insoluble in acid .. 0*120 „ 0*296 .. 0*177 

Insoluble leaf .. .. 47*120 „ 55-870 .. 51*910 

Tannin 13*040 „ 18*868 .. 15*323 

Theine i*88o „ 3*24 .. 2*736 



( 29 ) 



COFFEE. 

Coffee is the seed of the Caffea Arabica, indigenous to 
Abyssinia and southern Arabia, and since naturalised in 
the West Indies, Ceylon, Brazil, and other tropical coun- 
tries. Its importance as an almost universal beverage is 
only equalled by that of tea. The ancient history of coffee 
is shrouded in great obscurity. It was unknown to the 
Romans and Greeks, but its use is said to have been preva- 
lent in Abyssinia from the remotest time, and in Arabia it 
formed an article of general consumption during the 
fifteenth century. From its introduction, in 1575, into Con- 
stantinople by the Turks, it gradually made its way into all 
civilised countries. In 1690 it was carried by the Dutch 
from Mocha to Java, whence specimens of the tree were 
taken to Holland and France. Coffee houses were opened 
in London about the middle of the seventeenth century, 
and in 1 809 the first cargo of coffee was shipped to the 
United States. As with many other articles of diet, the 
adulteration of coffee has kept well apace with its increased 
consumption. The bean is deprived of its external fleshy 
coatings before exportation, and is met with in commerce 
in a raw, roasted, or ground condition. Bell * gives the 
following analyses of two samples of coffee, both in the 
raw and roasted state :— 

* Op. cit. 



3° 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 





Mocha. 


East Indian. 




Raw. 


Roasted. 


Raw. 


Roasted. 


Caffeine 

Saccharine matter .. 

Caffeic acids 

Alcohol extract (contain- 
ing nitrogen and colour- 
ing matter). 

Fat and oil 

Legumin or Albumin 

Dextrine 

Cellulose (and insoluble 
colouring matter). 

Ash .. .. 

Moisture 


per cent. 

i-o8 

9*55 
8-46 
6*90 

12-60 

9*87 

0-87 

37*95 

3*74 
8-98 


per cent. 
0-82 

0'43 

4*74 
14-14 

13*59 

11-23 

1*24 

48-62 

4-56 
0-63 


per cent. 
I'll 
8*90 
9*58 

4*3i 

ii-8i 

11-23 

0-84 

38-60 

3*98 
9-64 


per cent. 

I -05 

0-41 

4-52 

I2-67 

I3-4I 

13*13 
1-38 

47*42 

4' 88 
1-13 




100 • 00 


IOO'OO 


IOO'OO 


100 • 00 



Other authorities have obtained the following results :- 





Konig. 


Payen. 
Raw. 


Smethan. 




Raw. 


Roasted. 


7 Varieties.) 
Roasted. 


Substances soluble in water 

Nitrogen 

Nitrogenous substances 

Caffeine 

Caffetannic acid 

Fat 

Ethereal oil 

Sugar 

Sugar and Dextrine 
Other non-nitrogenous 
substances. 

Cellulose 

Ash 

Soluble ash 

Moisture 


per cent. 

27*44 
1-87 

ii*43 
1*18 

13*23 

3*25 

31-52 

27-72 
3*48 

11-19 


per cent. 

27*45 
2-31 

12*05 
1-38 

15-03 

1*32 

38 V 4i 

24-27 
3*75 

3*i9 


per cent. 

11 to 13 

o-8 

3*5 to 5 

10 to 13 

0-013 

15*5 

34*o 
6-7 

I2'0 


per cent. 
2*26 

10-99 

29*28 
4*19 

3*37 
2-87 



It will be noticed from these analyses that the amount of 
sugar is greatly diminished by the process of roasting. 
According to some analysts, the proportion of fat experi- 
ences an increase, but it is more probable that this con- 



COFFEE. 31 

stituent is simply rendered more susceptible to the action 
of solvents by a mechanical alteration of the structure of 
the berry. Recent determinations of the ash in coffee 
place its average proportion at 4 per cent. ; 3 • 24 being 
soluble in water, and o * 74 per cent, insoluble. The soluble 
extract in roasted coffee usually amounts to about 30 per 
cent. 

An analysis made by Beckurts and Kauder * gives the 
general composition of roasted chicory, dried at 107 , as 
follows : — 

Per cent. 

Substances soluble in water 57* 40 

„ insoluble „ 41*90 

Ash 7-66 

Fat , 0-73 

Nitrogenous substances 7*12 

Grape sugar 4*35 

Cane sugar and dextrine 5 "33 

Starch 2*45 

Other non-nitrogenous substances 49 13 

Woody fibre 26*23 

The most common adulterations to which coffee is liable 
consist in the addition of chicory, caramel, and numerous 
roasted grains, such as corn, wheat, and rye, as well as such 
roots and seeds as dandelion, mangold wurzel, turnips, 
beans, peas, etc. The roasted and ground article is natu- 
rally most exposed to falsification, although letters patent 
have been issued for the fictitious manufacture of a pressed 
" coffee bean," containing absolutely no coffee. The addi- 
tion of chicory is by far the most prevalent adulteration of 
coffee. Of thirty-four samples examined by Hassall, 
thirty-one (91 per cent.) contained this root. In regard to 
the moral aspects of its use, it can safely be asserted that, 
while the addition of chicory to coffee is largely sanctioned, 
and indeed demanded by the existing tastes of many coffee- 

* Pharm. Centralbl., 1885, p. 346. 



32 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

drinkers, its use constitutes a true adulteration, and should 
be condemned, unless its presence is prominently stated on 
the label of the package. In chicory the active principles 
of coffee, which exert valuable physiological effects on the 
system (viz. caffeine, the essential oil, etc.), are totally 
absent ; moreover, its comparative cheapness is a constant 
temptation to employ a proportion largely in excess of the 
amount requisite to produce any alleged improvement in 
the flavour of the resulting admixture. 

The sophistications of coffee may be detected, in a 
general way, by physical tests, by chemical analysis, and 
by microscopic examination, in which processes great aid 
is derived from the characteristic properties exhibited by 
the pure roasted and ground berry which distinguish it 
from its more usual adulterants. 

(a) Physical Examination. — The following tests, while 
not always decisive in their results, are often of service. 

A small portion of the suspected sample is gently placed 
upon the surface of a beaker filled with cold water, and 
allowed to remain at rest for about fifteen minutes. If pure, 
the sample does not imbibe the water, but floats upon the 
surface without communicating much colour to it ; if 
chicory or caramel be present, these substances rapidly 
absorb moisture and sink, producing brownish-red streaks 
in their descent, which, by diffusion, impart a very decided 
tint to the entire liquid. A similar coloration is caused 
by many other roasted roots and berries, but not so quickly 
or to so great an extent. The test may be somewhat 
modified by shaking the sample with cold water, and then 
allowing the vessel to stand aside for a short time. Pure 
coffee rises to the surface, little or no colour being imparted 
to the water ; chicory, etc., fall to the bottom as a sedi- 
ment, and give a brownish colour to the liquid. 

If a small quantity of the sample is placed upon a clean 
plate of glass, and moistened with a few drops of water, 
the pure coffee berries remain hard, and offer resistance 



COFFEE. 33 

when tested with a needle ; most grains employed for their 
adulteration become softened in their texture. 

A considerable portion of the mixture is treated with 
boiling water and allowed to settle. Genuine coffee affords a 
clear and limpid infusion ; many foreign grains yield a thick 
gummy liquor, resulting from the starchy and saccharine 
matters contained. An infusion of pure coffee, if treated 
with solution of cupric acetate and filtered, will show a 
greenish-yellow colour ; if chicory be present, the filtrate 
will be reddish-brown. As a rule, samples of ground 
coffee which are much adulterated, pack together when 
subjected to a moderate pressure. 

Owing to the low density of a coffee infusion (due to its 
almost entire freedom from sugar), as compared with that 
of the infusions of most roots and grains, it has been sug- 
gested by Messrs. Graham, Stenhouse and Campbell, to 
apply the specific gravity determination of the infusion 
obtained from the suspected sample as a means for detect- 
ing adulteration. The results afforded are fairly approxi- 
mate. The solution is prepared by boiling one part of the 
sample with ten parts of water and filtering. The follow- 
ing table gives the densities, at 1 5° • 5, of various infusions 
made in this manner : — 

Acorns 1*0073 

Peas 1*0073 

Mocha coffee 1*0080 

Beans 1*0084 

Java coffee 1*0087 

Jamaica coffee 1*0087 

Costa Rica coffee 1*0090 

Ceylon coffee 1*0090 

Brown malt 1*0109 

Parsnips 1*0143 

Carrots ~ 1*0171 

Yorkshire chicory 1*0191 

Black malt 1*0212 

Turnips 1*0214 

Rye meal 1*0216* 

D 



34 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

English chicory 1*0217 

Dandelion root 1*0219 

Red beet 1*0221 

Foreign chicory 1*0226 

Mangold wurzel 1*0235 

Maize 1*0253 

Bread raspings 1*0263 

Assuming the gravity of the pure coffee infusion to be 
I • 0086, and that of chicory to be 1 • 0206, the approximate 
percentage of coffee, C, in a mixture, can be obtained by 
means of the following equation, in which D represents the 
density of the infusion : — 

r _ 1 -oo (l'020 — D 
~~ 12 

This was tested by mixing equal parts of coffee and 
chicory, and taking the specific gravity of the infusion ; 
it was 1*01408, indicating the presence of 49 per cent, of 
coffee. Some idea of the amount of foreign admixture 
(especially chicory) in ground roasted coffee may be formed 
from the tinctorial power of the sample. It has already 
been mentioned that coffee imparts much less colour to 
water than do most roasted grains and roots. The table 
below shows the weights of various roasted substances 
which must be dissolved in 2 *ooo parts of water in order to 
produce an equal degree of colour : * — 

Caramel i*oo 

Mangold wurtzel 1*66 

Black malt 1*82 

White turnips 2*00 

Carrots 2*00 

Chicory (darkest Yorkshire) 2*22 

Parsnips 2*50 

Maize 2*86 

Rye 2*86 

Dandelion root 3*33 

Red beet 3*33 



Graham, Stenhouse and Campbell. 



COFFEE. 35 

Bread raspings 3*36 

Acorns 5"oo 

Over-roasted coffee 5*46 

Highly-roasted coffee 5-77 

Medium-roasted coffee 6-95 

Peas 13-33 

Beans 13-33 

Spent tan 33*oo 

Brown malt 40*00 

The comparative colour test may also be applied as 
follows :* — One gramme each of the sample under exami- 
nation, and of a sample prepared by mixing equal parts of 
pure coffee and chicory, are completely exhausted with 
water, and the infusions made up to 100 c.c. or more ; 
50 c.c. of the filtered extract from the suspected sample are 
then placed in a Nessler cylinder, and it is determined by 
trial how many c.c. of the extract from the standard 
mixture, together with enough distilled water to make up 
the 50 c.c, will produce the same colour. In calculating 
the chicory present, it is assumed that this substance 
possesses three times the tinctorial power of coffee. 

(b) Chemical Examination. — Some of the chemical pro- 
perties of roasted coffee afford fairly reliable means for the 
detection of an admixture of chicory. Coffee ash dissolves 
in water to the extent of about 80 per cent. ; of the ash 
of roasted chicory only about 35 per cent, is soluble. 
Coffee ash is almost free from silica and sand, which sub- 
stances form a notable proportion of the constituents of the 
ash of chicory. 

The following (see p. 36) are the results obtained by the 
writer from the analysis of the ash of coffee and chicory. 

It will be observed from these analyses, that the most 
distinctive features presented by coffee ash are the absence 
of soda, and the small amounts of chlorine, ferric oxide and 
silica present. In these respects, it is very different from 
the ash of chicory. The proportion of phosphoric acid 

* Leebody, Chemical News,' xxx. p. 243. 

D 2 



36 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 





Java Coffee. 


Chicory Root. 


Percentage of ash 


per cent. 

3*93 


per cent. 

4*41 


Potassa 

Soda 

Lime 

Magnesia * 

Alumina 

Ferric oxide 

Sulphuric acid 

Chlorine 

Carbonic acid 

Phosphoric acid 

Silica and sand 


53*37 

5 V 8 4 
9*09 
o'43 
o'53 
3*i9 
0*78 
15*26 
11*26 
0*25 


23*00 

I3*i3 
9*40 
5*88 

5*00 
9*75 
4*93 
4*01 

8*44 
16*46 




100 * 00 


100*00 



found in the latter is in excess of that given by some 
authorities. Several analyses of chicory ash have been made 
by the author, and, in every instance, the amount of phos- 
phoric acid was over 8 per cent. ; in one sample of the ash 
of commercial chicory it approximated 1 3 per cent. 

Blyth gives the annexed table, showing the characteristic 
differences between coffee and chicory ash : * — 



Silica and sand . 
Carbonic acid 
Ferric oxide . . 
Chlorine 

Phosphoric acid . 
Total soluble ash 



Coffee Ash. 


Chicory Ash. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


none 


10*69 to 35*88 


14-92 


1*78 „ 3*19 


o*44to 0*98 


3*i3 1, 5*32 


0*26 „ 1*11 


3*28 „ 4*93 


IO'OO „ 11 *oo 


5 "00 „ 6*oo 


75*00 „ 85*00 


2I '°° » 35*oo 



The following formula has been suggested for deter- 
mining the percentage of pure coffee, in mixtures : — 

C = 2 0^2_^ziZ4) 
3 
where S represents the percentage of soluble ash. 

Another noteworthy difference between roasted coffee 
and chicory, is the amount of sugar contained. As a rule, 
in roasted coffee, it ranges from o*o to 1*2 per cent; in 
* ' Foods : Composition and Analysis.' 



COFFEE. 



37 



roasted chicory, it varies from 12* to i8* per cent. The 
quantity of sugar in a sample can be determined by 
Fehling's method as follows : — 

A standard solution of pure cupric sulphate is first pre- 
pared by dissolving 34*64 grammes of the crystals 
(previously ground and dried by pressing between bibulous 
paper) in about 200 c.c. of distilled water ; 173 grammes of 
pure Rochelle salt are separately dissolved in 480 c.c. of a 
solution of sodium hydroxide ofsp. gr. 1 • 14. The solutions 
are then mixed and diluted with distilled water to one litre. 
Each c.c. of the above solution represents 0*05 gramme 
of grape sugar. The test is applied by taking 10 c.c. of the 
copper solution, adding about four times its volume of 
water, and bringing it to the boiling point. The coffee in- 
fusion is then gradually added from a burette, until the 
copper salt is completely reduced to the red sub-oxide, which 
point is recognised by the disappearance of its blue colour, 
and can be more accurately determined by acidulating the 
filtered fluid with acetic acid and testing it (while still 
hot) for any remaining trace of copper with potassium ferro- 
cyanide. In preparing the coffee solution for the foregoing 
test, it is advisable to exhaust a weighed quantity of the 
sample with hot water. The infusion is treated with 
basic plumbic acetate so long as a precipitate forms ; it is 
then filtered, the precipitate being well washed, and the 
lead contained is removed by conducting sulphuretted 
hydrogen gas through the fluid which is subsequently 
again filtered and boiled until the dissolved gas is expelled. 
The sugar determination is now made. Wanklyn employs 
the following equation to estimate the amount of chicory in 
an adulterated sample : — 

E= ( S - r ) I0Q 
H 

where E is the percentage of chicory, and S the percentage 
of sugar. 



38 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 



According to the analysis of Konig, the proportions of 
sugar and other constituents in some of the adulterants of 
coffee, are as follows : — 



Water 

Nitrogenous substances 

Fat 

Sugar 

Other non-nitrogenous 
substances. 

Cellulose 

Ash 

Substances soluble in water 



Chicory. 



per cent. 

I2'l6 

6-09 

2*05 

I5-87 

467I 

II'O 

6-12 

63-05 



Figs. 



per cent. 

18-98 
4/25 
2-83 

34'19 
29-I5 

7-16 

3*44 

73'8i 



Acorns. 



per cent. 
12-85 

6-13 

4-61 
8-05 
62- 

4*98 

2*12 



Rye. 



per cent. 
I5-22 
11-84 
3'46 
3-92 
55*37 

5"35 
4-81 

45*ii 



Estimations of the amount of sugar obtained upon boil- 
ing the suspected coffee with water containing a little 
sulphuric acid (see p. 37), and the proportion of the 
sample which is soluble in hot water should be made. 
The presence of chicory is shown by a decided increase 
in the amount of soluble substances ; that of rye, by the 
notable quantity of sugar produced by the inversion with 
acid, due to the starch contained in the grain. 

In this connection, the following determinations of 
Krausch are of interest : — 



Roasted coffee 

„ chicory 

rye , . •• 

„ coffee + 10 per cent, chicory 
„ coffee + 10 per cent, rye .. 



Substances 

Soluble in 

Water. 



per cent. 

23-8I 

65-42 

3I-92 

30-63 

25-98 



Ready- 
formed 
Sugar. 



per cent. 

0*20 

23-40 



2-30 
0*19 



Sugar 

after 

Inversion. 



per cent. 

24-59 
22-14 

75-37 
23 15 
2Q'60 



The presence of roasted rye, corn, and other grains in 
coffee, may be qualitatively recognised by testing the cold 
infusion of the sample with iodine solution for starch, which 



COFFEE. 39 

is not contained in a ready formed state in coffee. Caffeine 
is absent in chicory and the other usual adulterants of 
coffee, and the estimation of this alkaloid is of decided 
service (see p. 21). Roasted coffee contains about 1 per 
cent, of caffeine. 

A popular brand of ground coffee received by the author 
for examination, and labelled " Prepared Java Coffee," had 
the following approximate composition : — Coffee, 38 ; peas, 
52 ; rye, 2 ; and chicory, 7 per cent. 

A sample of " acorn " coffee, analysed by Kbnig, gave 
the following results : — 

Per cent. 

Water 12*85 

Nitrogenous substances 6-13 

Fat 4 ci 

Sugar 8*oi 

Other non-nitrogenous substances .. .. 62* 00 

Cellulose 4*98 

Ash 2- 02 

The non-nitrogenous constituents contained from 20 to 
30 per cent, of starch, and from 6 to 8 per cent, of tannic 
acid. 

The composition of the well-known German coffee- 
substitutes, prepared by Behr Bros., is stated to be as 
follows : — 

" Rye Coffee-substitutes:' 

Per cent. 

Substances soluble in water 61*33 

Substances insoluble in water 36*45 

Cellulose 9*78 

Starch 8*34 

Dextrine 49' 5 I 

Nitrogenous substances 11*87 

Other non-nitrogenous substances .. .. 9*83 

Fat 3*9i 

Ash 4*54 

Moisture 2*22 



40 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

" Malt Coffee-substitute: 1 

Per cent. 

[ Albuminoid substances .. .. 4*22 

Soluble ] Dextrine . 50*19 

in \ Alcoholic extract 7*57 

hot water Inorganic matter, containing) 
{ phosphoric acid, o' 54 .. ..) 

Insoluble in hot water 35' 00 

Moisture 0*35 

The raw coffee bean is sometimes subjected to a process 
termed " sweating," which consists in treating it with moist 
steam, the object being to artificially reproduce the con- 
ditions present in the holds of vessels, by means of which 
the bean is increased in size, and also somewhat improved 
in colour and flavour. Another form I of manipulation, 
analogous to the facing of tea, is to moisten the raw bean 
with water containing a little gum, and agitate it with 
various pigments, such as indigo, Prussian blue, Persian 
berries, turmeric, alkanet, Venetian red, soap-stone, chrome- 
yellow, and iron ochre. Mexican coffees are sometimes 
made to resemble the more expensive Java in appearance. 
The chemist of the New York City Board of Health has 
found in the quantity of such treated coffee commonly taken 
to make a cup of the beverage 0*0014 gramme of cupric 
arsenite. Indigo may be detected in the artificially coloured 
product by treating a considerable portion of the sample 
with dilute nitric acid, filtering and saturating the filtrate 
with sulphuretted hydrogen. If indigo be present, it can 
now be extracted upon agitating the solution with chloro- 
form. Alkanet root and Prussian blue are separated by 
warming the coffee with solution of potassium carbonate, 
from which these pigments are precipitated upon addition 
of hydrochloric acid. 

(c) Microscopic Examination. — Great aid to the chemical 
investigation is afforded by the microscopic examination 
of ground coffee. It is necessary to first become familiar 
with the appearance of the genuine article — low magnify- 



COFFEE. 41 

ing powers being employed — and then make comparative 
examinations of the adulterant suspected to be present. 

The coffee bean mainly consists of irregular cells 
inclosed in very thick walls which are distinguished by 
uneven projections. The cells contain globules of oil. 
Most of the roots added to coffee exhibit a conglomera- 
tion of cells (provided with thin walls) and groups of 
jointed tubes, often quite similar to one another in 
structure. The microscopic appearance of some of the 
starch granules, occasionally met with in coffee mixtures, 
is represented on p. 100. 

Of 151 samples of ground coffee recently purchased at 
random and tested by various American chemists, 69 (45 * 7 
per cent.) were found to be adulterated. 



42 FOOD ADULTERATION. 



COCOA AND CHOCOLATE. 

COCOA is prepared from the roasted seeds of the tree 
Theobroma cacao, of the order Byttneriacece. It sometimes 
appears in commerce as " cocoa-nibs " (i. e. partially ground), 
but it is more frequently sold in the powdered state, either 
pure or mixed with sugar and starch, and also often de- 
prived of about one-half of its fat. Chocolate usually 
consists of cocoa-paste and sugar flavoured with vanilla, 
cinnamon, or cloves, and commonly mixed with flour or 
starch. According to Wanklyn, the average composition 
of cocoa is as follows : — 

Per cent. 

Cocoa butter 50*00 

Theobromine i'5o 

Starch 10*00 

Albumin, fibrine and gluten i8'oo 

Gum 8'oo 

Colouring matter 2 * 60 

Water 6-oo 

Ash 3'6o 

Loss, etc 0*30 

R. Benzeman* has furnished the following averages of 
the results obtained by the analysis of cocoa and chocolate. 
The air-dried cocoa berries gave — husks, 13*00 per cent.; 
nibs, 87 * 00 per cent. : — 

* Jahresberichte, 1883, p. 1002. 



COCOA AND CHOCOLATE. 



43 







Chocolate made 




Cocoa Nibs. 


from Cocoa and 






Sugar. 




per cent. 


per cent. 


Moisture at I oo° 


6*41 


1-65 


Fat 


51 '47 


22-57 


Starch 


1175 


4-S8 


Other organic substances, insoluble in 


18-03 


8-58 


water. 






Organic substances, soluble in water 


8-54 


60*63 


Mineral Ash 


3'8o 


1-99 




100 • 00 


100 • 00 


Ash of insoluble substances 


0-89 


0-30 



Recent analysis of shelled cocoa-beans, made by Bous- 
singault, gave the following results : — 



Dry. 



Fat 

Starch and starch-sugar .. .. . 

Theobromine 

Asparagine 

Albumin 

„ gum 

Tartaric acid 

Tannin .. .. 

Soluble cellulose 

Ash 

Water 

Undetermined 5-3 5*8 

Dr. Weigman* obtained the following results from an 
examination of several varieties of the shelled beans : — 




per cent 
54'0 

2-5 
3'6 


n-8 


2*5 

3*7 

0'2 


"*5 

4*4 





Water. 


Fat. 


Ash. 


Nitrogen. 




per cent. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


Machala 


4*97 


47'8o 


3*88 


2-25 


Arriba 


6-57 


47*44 


3 52 


2-3I 


Caracas 


6" 00 


46-39 


4-19 


2-23 


Puerto Cabello 


5-71 


48-74 


3*94 


2-13 


Surinam 


5-01 


46*26 


2-99 


2'20 


Trinidad 


6*07 


45*74 


2*o4 


2*04 


Port au Prince 


473 


48-58 


3*89 


2*33 



* Agrikulturchemische Versuchstation, in Minister. 



44 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

The most important constituents of cocoa are the fat 
(cocoa-butter), and the alkaloid (theobromine). 

Cocoa butter forms a whitish solid of 0*970 specific 
gravity, fusing at 30 , and soluble in ether and in alcohol. 

Theobromine (C7H 8 N 4 2 ) crystallises in minute rhombic 
prisms, which are insoluble in benzol, but dissolve readily 
in boiling water and alcohol. It sublimes at 170 . Theo- 
bromine is exceedingly rich in nitrogen, containing over 
20 per cent, of the element. In this and many other 
respects it bears a great resemblance to theine. 

The proportion of mineral ash in cocoa varies from 3 • 06 
to 4 * 5 per cent. 

James Bell * gives the following composition of the ash 
of Grenada cocoa nibs : — 

Per cent. 

Sodium chloride 0*57 

Soda 0-57 

Potassa 27-64 

Magnesia .. 19/81 

Lime 4'53 

Alumina 0-08 

Ferric oxide 0*15 

Carbonic acid 2*92 

Sulphuric acid 4*53 

Phosphoric acid 39"2o 

100 • 00 



The most characteristic features of the ash of genuine 
cocoa are its great solubility, the small amounts of chlorine, 
carbonates, and soda, and the constancy of the proportion of 
phosphoric acid contained. Bell has also analysed several 
samples of commercial cocoa. The following will serve to 
illustrate their general composition : — 

Per cent. 

Moisture 4'95 

Fat 24*94 

Starch (added) 19* 19 

Sugar (added) 23*03 

Non-fatty cocoa 27.89 

100 • 00 

* Op. cit. 



COCOA AND CHOCOLATE. 45 

Per cent. 

Nitrogen 2*24 

Ash 1*52 

Cocoa, soluble in cold water 31*66 

Ash in portion soluble in cold water .. .. 1*17 

The comparatively low percentage of ash contained in 
prepared cocoas and chocolate, is of use in indicating the 
amount of real cocoa present in such mixtures. A large 
proportion of the mineral constituents of cocoa are dis- 
solved by directly treating it with cold water. Wanklyn 
obtained in this way from genuine cocoa-nibs 6"j6 per 
cent, organic matter, and 2* 16 per cent, ash, the latter 
chiefly consisting of phosphates ; a commercial cocoa gave, 
extract, 46 ■ 04 per cent. ; ash, 1 ■ 04 per cent. The most 
common admixtures of cocoa and chocolate, are sugar and 
the various starches. The addition of foreign fats, chicory, 
and iron ochres, is also sometimes practised. Since pre- 
pared cocoas are generally understood to contain the first- 
named diluents, their presence can hardly be considered 
an adulteration, if the fact is mentioned upon the packages. 
Many varieties of the cocoas of commerce will be found to 
be deficient in cocoa-butter, a considerable proportion of 
which has been removed in the process of manufacture. 
This practice is also claimed to be justifiable, the object 
being to produce an article unobjectionable to invalids, 
which is not always the case with pure cocoa. In the 
analysis of cocoa the following estimations are usually 
made : — 

Theobromine. — 10 grammes of the sample are first re- 
peatedly exhausted with petroleum - naphtha. The in- 
soluble residue is mixed with a small quantity of paste, 
prepared by triturating calcined magnesia with a little 
water, and the mixture evaporated to dryness at a gentle 
heat. The second residue is boiled with alcohol and the 
alcoholic solution of theobromine filtered and evaporated 
to dryness in a tared capsule. It is then purified by 
washing with petroleum-naphtha and weighed. Bell has 



46 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

verified the existence in cocoa of a second alkaloid, distinct 
from theobromine, which crystallises in silky needles very 
similar to theine. 

Fat. — The proportion of fat is readily determined by 
evaporating to dryness the petroleum-naphtha used in the 
preceding estimation. As already stated, it is generally 
present in a proportion of 50 per cent, in pure cocoa ; the 
amount contained in prepared soluble cocoas being often 
less than 25 per cent. The English minimum standard is 
20 per cent. 

Ash. — The ash is determined by the incineration of a 
weighed portion of the sample in a platinum dish. In 
prepared cocoas and chocolates, the proportion of ash is 
considerably lower than in pure cocoa, It is of importance 
to ascertain the amount of ash soluble in water (the pro- 
portion in genuine cocoa is about 50 per cent), and 
especially the quantity of phosphoric acid contained. 
Assuming that prepared cocoa contains 1 ■ 5 per cent, of 
ash, of which o ' 6 per cent, consists of phosphoric acid, and 
allowing that pure cocoa contains 0*9 per cent, of phos- 
phoric acid, Blyth adopts the following formula for calcu- 
lating the proportion of cocoa present in the article : — 

•6x 100 _ ^ 

v = oo'oo per cent. 

'9 

Starch. — A convenient method for estimating the starch 
is to first remove the fatty matter of the cocoa by ex- 
haustion with petroleum-naphtha, and then boil the re- 
sidue with alcohol. The remaining insoluble matter is 
dried, and afterwards boiled until the starch becomes 
soluble. It is next again boiled for several hours with 
a little dilute sulphuric acid, after which the solution 
is purified by addition of basic plumbic acetate. The 
liquid is then treated with sulphuretted hydrogen, in 
order to remove the lead, and the sugar contained in 
the filtered solution is determined by means of Fehling's 



COCOA AND CHOCOLATE. 47 

solution, and calculated to terms of starch. The proportion 
of starch normally present in cocoa is to be deducted 
from the results thus afforded. The variety of starch 
contained in cocoa differs in its microscopic appearance 
from the starches most frequently added. 

Sugar. — The sugar may be determined by evaporating 
the alcoholic solution obtained in the preceding process, 
and then subjecting the residue to the same method of 
procedure. 

The proportion of woody fibre in cocoa can be approxi- 
mately estimated by the method of Henneberg and 
Stohman,* which consists in extracting the fat with ben- 
zole, boiling the remaining substances for half an hour, 
first with I '25 per cent, sulphuric acid, then with I '25 per 
cent, solution of potassium hydroxide. The residue is washed 
with alcohol and with ether, and its weight determined. 
Unwashed cocoa-berries, when treated in this manner, gave 
from 2 to 3 per cent, of cellulose, while cocoa husks 
furnished from 10 to 16 per cent. The presence of chicory 
in soluble cocoa and chocolate is easily recognised by the 
dark colour of the extract obtained, upon digesting the 
suspected sample with cold water ; ochres and other colour- 
ing matters are detected by the reddish colour of the ash 
as well as by its abnormal composition. The addition of 
foreign fats to chocolates is stated to be occasionally re- 
sorted to. 

The melting point of pure cocoa-butter varies from 30 
to 33 . The identification of foreign fats can sometimes be 
accomplished by means of their higher melting point, and 
by an examination of the separated fat, according to 
Koettstorfer's method (see p. 71). The table following 
gives the melting points of various fats, and the number of 
milligrammes of K(OH) required for the saponification of 
one gramme of the same. 

* Repert. f. Analyt. Chemie, 1884, p. 345. 



4 8 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 



Fat. 


Melting point. 


m.g. K(OH) 

to saponify 

one gramme. 


Cocoa-butter 

Arachidis oil 

Sesame oil 

Cotton-seed and olive oil 

Almond oil 

Palm oil 

Lard 

Mutton tallow (fresh) 

Mutton tallow (old) 

Bone fat 

Beeswax 


o o 

30 to 33 

35 to 36 

32 „ 33 

42*5 » 45 

43"5 

21 to 22 

63 


198 to 203 

I9I-3 
190*0 
I 9 I-7 
I94-5 

202 -5 
195-5 

196-5 
190*0 



Other tests have also been suggested for the detec- 
tion of foreign fats in cocoa-butter : — 

(a) Treat the fat with two parts of cold ether ; pure 
cocoa-butter dissolves, forming a clear solution, whereas 
in presence of tallow or wax a cloudy mixture is obtained. 

(J?) Dissolve 10 grammes of the suspected fat in ben- 
zole, and expose the solution to a temperature of o°. By 
this treatment a separation of pure cocoa-butter in minute 
grains is produced. The liquid is now heated to 14°* 4, 
when the cocoa-fat will re-dissolve to a transparent solution, 
while the presence of tallow will be recognised by the 
turbid appearance of the liquid. 



( 49 ) 



MILK 



OWING to the very important sanitary relations of milk as 
a model food, the subject of its sophistication has during 
the past ten years received particular notice at the hands 
of the food-chemist. The investigations of our public 
sanitary authorities have shown that milk adulteration is 
exceedingly common. It is stated upon good authority 
that until quite recently (1883) the 120 millions of quarts 
of milk annually brought into New York city were inten- 
tionally diluted with 40 millions of quarts of water, the 
resulting product rivalling in richness the famous compound 
once lauded by the philanthropic Squeers. 

The results of the examination of milk instituted by the 
New York State Board of Health are given below, in 
which, however, the specimens of skimmed milk are not 
included : — 



Year. 


Number of Samples 
tested. 


Number showing 
addition of Water. 


Per cent, of 
Adulterated. 


l88o 
l88l 
1882 


I5H 
IIIO 
1775 


167 

51 

I20 


II 'O 

4'6 
6-7 



From October 1883 to March 1884, of 241 samples of milk 
examined by the Public Analyst of Eastern Massachusetts, 
21*37 P er cent, were watered; of 11 90 samples tested 
during the year 1884, 790 were watered.* Over y^ per 
cent, of the milk supplied to the city of Buffalo in 1885 
was found to be adulterated. A very marked improve- 

* In 1885, out of 2024 samples tested, 880 fell below the standard 
of 13 per cent, total solids. 

E 



50 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

ment in the quality of the milk received in New York city 
has taken place since the appointment of a State Dairy 
Commissioner (1884). Under the direction of this official 
the metropolitan milk supply has been subjected to a most 
rigid inspection, and with very satisfactory results. During 
the years 1884 and 1885 nearly 45,000 samples of milk 
were examined. 

A very common sophistication practised upon milk con- 
sists in the partial or complete removal of its cream. This 
process of skimming is conducted at establishments called 
" creameries," of which sixty-three were formerly known to 
send their impoverished product to New York city. The 
State Dairy Commissioner has likewise accomplished 
much towards stopping this form of adulteration. 

Milk is the secretion of the mammary glands of female 
mammalia. It is an opaque liquid, possessing a white, 
bluish-white, or yellowish-white colour, little or no odour, 
and a somewhat sweetish taste. At times it exhibits an 
amphigenic reaction, i. e. it turns red litmus blue and blue 
litmus red. From the examination of nearly one thousand 
cows in the States of New York, New Jersey, and Connec- 
ticut, the minimum specific gravity of milk was found to be 
I • 0290, the maximum being 1 * 0394. The opacity of milk 
is only apparent, and is due to the presence of fatty 
globules held in suspension ; these under the microscope 
are seen to be surrounded by a transparent liquid. Upon 
allowing milk to remain at rest for some time it experiences 
two changes. At first, a yellowish-white stratum of cream 
rises to the surface, the lower portion becoming bluish- 
white in colour and increasing in density. If this latter is 
freed from the cream and again set aside, it undergoes a 
further separation into a solid body {curd), and a liquid 
{whey). This coagulation of the curd {caseine) is imme- 
diately produced by the addition of rennet, and of many 
acids and metallic salts. 

The essential ingredients of milk are water, fat, caseine, 
sugar (lactose), and inorganic salts. The following table, 



MILK. 



5* 



collated by Mr. Edward W. Martin,* exhibits the results 
obtained by numerous authorities from the analysis of pure 



cow's milk : — 
















Authority or 
Analyst. 


Number of 
cows. 


Water. 


Total 
solids. 


Fat. 


Solids 
not fat. 


Sugar. 


Caseine. 


Salts. 






per cent. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


James Bell . . 


2l6 


87-17 


I2-8 3 


3-83 


9'00 






0'7I 


James Bell . . 


24 dairies 


86'78 


I3-22 


4-12 


9'IO 






0-72 


C. Estecourt 


22 „ 


87-26 


12-74 


3*37 


9-37 








J. Carter Bell 


183 


86-40 


13-60 


3-7o 


9-90 






0-76 


J. Cameron . . 


42 


86-53 


13*47 


4-00 


9'47 








C. Cameron 


40 


87-00 


13-00 


4-00 


9-00 


4*28 


4-IO 


0'62 


C. Cameron 


100 


86-75 


13-85 


4-60 


9*25 








Fleischmann "l 
and Veith . . J 


120 


87'78 


I2'22 


3-20 


9-02 








Veith .. .. 


60 


87-20 


12- 80 


3-10 


9-7o 






.. 


Veith .. .. 


9120 


86-97 


I3-03 


3-52 


9*51 








Wanklyn 


Average 


87-50 


12*50 


3-20 


9-30 








A. Wynter \ 
Blyth.. ../ 


5> 


86-87 


I3-I3 


3-5o 


9-63 








Marchand . . 


) J 


87-15 


12-85 


3'55 


9*30 








Henry and "1 
Chevalier . . / 


>> 


87-02 


I2-98 


3-13 


9-85 


4-77 


4-48 


o*6o 


Vernois Bec-1 
querel . . / 


»» 


86-40 


I3-60 


3-60 


io-oo 








Payen .. 


,, 


86- 60 


I3-40 


3-5o 


9-90 








O. C. Wiggin 


58 


85-92 


14-08 


4-01 


10-07 


4-29 


4-99 


0-79 


E. Calder .. 


27 


87-23 


12-77 


3-32 


9-45 








Sharpless .. 


34 


85-85 


14-15 


4-62 


9*53 


4-82 


4*o6 


0-65 


Haidlen 


Average 


87-30 


12-70 


3-00 


9-70 








Letherby 


„ 


86-oo 


14-00 


3-90 


IO'IO 


5* 20 


4- 10 


o-8o 


J. Konig 


>> 


87-30 


12-70 


3-00 


9-7o 


5-00 


4-00 


0-70 


Boussingault 


3» 


87-40 


I2'60 


4-10 


8-50 


5-10 


3-20 


0*70 


Muspratt . . 


5> 


86-43 


13-57 


4-43 


9-14 


4*73 


3-74 


0*67 


Dieulafait . . 


J> 


87-64 


12-36 


3-11 


9*25 


4'22 


4-18 


0-85 


Gorup- 1 
Bezanez . . / 


?> 


85-70 


14-30 


4*31 


9 - 99 


4-04 


5-40 


o-55 


Brinton 


J> 


86- 00 


14-00 


4-5o 


9-5° 


3-50 


5-50 


0-70 


Chandler 


1 700 qts. 


87H5 


12-55 


3-83 


8-72 






.. 


Newton 


Average 


87-50 


12-50 


3-5o 


9-00 






.. 


Bartley 


»j 


87-50 


12-50 


3*50 


9-00 








White .. .. 


>> 


87-50 


12-50 


3-5o 


9-00 






.. 


Waller.. .. 


») 


87-50 


12*50 


3-20 


9*30 








Babcock 


j j 


85-53 


14-47 


5-09 


9-39 


515 


3'57 


0-67 


Church 


> » 


86-30 


13-70 


3-7o 


io-oo 


5-10 


4-10 


o-8o 


Edward Smith 


>> 


86-40 


13-60 


3 -6i 


9-90 


3'8o 


5-52 


o-66 


Martin.. 


>> 


86-50 


12-50 


3'20 


9-30 


•• 




0-67 



Mr. Martin obtained the following results from the 

* Second Annual Report of the New York State Dairy Commis- 
sioner, 1886. 

E 2 



52 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 



examination of cream separated by centrifugal force, and 
of skimmed milk : — 





Cream. 


Skimmed Milk. 




per cent. 


per cent. 


Water 


52"2I 


90*34 


Fat 


41 "l6 


0-15 


Sugar 


3'II 


3*98 


Caseine 


3*40 


4- 80 


Salts 


0*I2 


0*78 



The proportion of mineral constituents in milk usually 
ranges between 0*7 and 0*8 per cent. The average 
composition of milk ash is as follows : * — 

Per cent. 

Potassa 24*5 

Soda ii'o 

Lime 22*5 

Magnesia 2*6 

Ferric oxide 0*3 

Phosphoric anhydride 26 • o 

Sulphuric anhydride .. .. i*o 

Chlorine 15*6 

io3*5t 

The tabulation below gives the composition of human 
milk and the milk of various animals : — 



Specific 
Gravity 



Water. 



Milk 
Solids. 



Fat. 



Caseine 



Milk . Inorganic 
Sugar. Salts. 



White woman 
Coloured woman 
Mare 

Goat 

Ewe 

Sow 

Canine 

Ass 

Camel 

Hippopotamus 
Elephant .. 
Porpoise .. 

Cat 

Llama 



03^ 

1-0310 
1-0323 
1*0380 
1-0440 



1-036077 
1-033091 



cent 
'806 

'34 
•310 

36 
'94 
'80 
•26 

95 

86-94 

90*43 

66-697 

41-11 

81-62 

89-55 



194 

66 

690 

64 

00 

20 

74 

05 

06 



9'57 
33*303 
58-89 
18-38 
10-45 



per cent. 

4-021 

4^3 
I -055 
4'36 
6"97 

6*oo 

10*64 

o*ii 

2*90 

4-51 

22*070 

45' 80 

3*33 

3*15 



per cent. 
3-523 
3*32 
1-953 
4'70 
5-40 
5-30 
9'2I 

1-82 

3-67 



per cent. 
4*265 
5'7I 
6-285 
4-OO 
3*63 
6*07 

2-49 
6-o8 
5-78 



4-40 



3-212 
11-19 

9'55 
0-90 



7-392 

i*33 
4-91 
5*60 



per cent. 
0-28 

o # 6i 

o-397 
0*62 

o'97 
0-83 
0-44 

o'34 
o-66 

o-ii 
0-629 
o 57 
0-58 
o-8o 



* Dammer's ' Lexikon der Verfalschungen,' 1887, p. 592. 
13-50 per cent, should be deducted for chlorine and oxygen. 



MILK. 



53 



Several varieties of preserved and condensed milk have, 
for a number of years, been placed upon the market. The 
composition of the best-known brands of these prepara- 
tions is as follows : — 



Preserved 


Milk. 








Brand. 


Water. 


Fat. 


Cane and 

Milk 

Sugar. 


Caseine. 


Salts. 


Alderney 

Anglo-Swiss (American) 

„ (English) .. 
„ „ (Swiss) 

Eagle 

Crown 


per cent. 
30-05 
29-46 
27-80 
25-51 
27-30 

29 "44 


per cent. 
IO'o8 

8-u 

8-24 
8-51 
6-6o 
9-27 


per cent. 
46-OI 
50'4I 
5I-07 

53*27 
44*47 
49-26 


per cent. 
12*04 
IO'22 

io'8o 

IO*7I 

10*77 

IO'II 


per cent. 
1*82 

i*8o 

2*09 
2*00 

i-86 
1*92 





Condensed 


Milk. 








Brand. 


Water. 


Fat. 


Cane and 
Milk 
Sugar. 


Caseine. 


Salts. 


American 

New York 

Granulated Milk Co. 
Eagle 


per cent. 
52-07 
56-7I 

55*43 
56*01 


per cent. 
I5*o6 

14*13 
I3*l6 
I4*02 


per cent. 

16*97 
13*98 
14*84 
14*06 


per cent. 
I4*26 

13*18 
14*04 

13*90 


per cent. 

2*80 

2'00 

2*53 
2*OI 



Analysis. 

The principal adulterations of milk (watering and skim- 
ming), are detected by taking its specific gravity, and 
making quantitative determinations of the total milk solids, 
the fat, and the milk solids not fat. Of these criteria, the 
last-mentioned is the most constant and reliable. - 



Physical Examination. 

a. Specific Gravity. — The instrument employed by the 
New York health inspectors for testing milk is a variety of 
the hydrometer, termed the lactometer, and its use, which 
is based upon the fact that under ordinary conditions. 



54 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

watered milk possesses a decreased density, is certainly of 
great value as a preliminary test. The Board of Health 
lactometer indicates specific gravities between I 'ooo (the 
density of water) and 1*0348. On its scale 100 re- 
presents the specific gravity of 1 ■ 029 (taken as the 
minimum density of genuine milk), and o represents the 
density of water; the graduations are extended to 120 , 
equivalent to a specific gravity of 1*0348. In taking an 
observation with the lactometer, the standard temperature 
of 1 5 should be obtained, and the colour and consistency of 
the milk noted. If these latter properties indicate a dilution 
of the sample, and the instrument sinks below the 100° 
mark, it is safe to assume that the milk has been watered. 
The scale is so constructed that the extent of the dilution 
is directly shown by the reading, e.g. if the lactometer sinks 
to yo° the sample contains 70 per cent, of pure milk and 
30 per cent, of water. As the standard of specific gravity 
(1 '029) selected for the ioo° mark of the lactometer is the 
minimum density of unwatered milk, it is evident that the 
readings of the instrument will almost invariably indicate 
an addition of water less than has actually taken place. It 
would therefore appear that, under normal circumstances, 
the standard adopted by the New York Board of Health 
errs on the side of too much leniency toward the milk 
dealer. Cream being lighter than water, a sample of 
skimmed milk will possess a greater specific gravity than 
the pure article, and it is possible to add from 10 to 20 per 
cent of water to it and still have the resulting admixture 
stand at ioo° when tested by the lactometer. Vehement 
attempts have been made in court and elsewhere to impeach 
the accuracy of the indications afforded by the lactometer. 
These have been mainly founded upon the fact that a 
sample of milk unusually rich in cream will have a lower 
density than a poorer grade, so that it is quite possible that 
milk of very superior quality may show a gravity identical 
with that of a watered specimen. Great stress has been 



MILK. 



55 



laid upon this by the opponents of the measures to control 
milk adulteration adopted by the public sanitary authorities. 
They have contended that a chemical analysis should be 
made. Recourse to this method would, however, involve a 
greater amount of time than it is usually practicable to 
devote to the examination of the numerous samples daily 
inspected ; moreover, the process is resorted to whenever 
the indications of the lactometer leave the inspector in 
doubt. With the exercise of ordinary intelligence this 
contingency seldom arises, as the proportion of cream 
required to reduce the specific gravity to that of a watered 
sample would be more than sufficient to obviate any danger 
of mistaking the cause of the decreased density. In this 
connection it should be stated, that the average lactometric 
standing of about 20,000 samples of milk, examined by the 
New York State Dairy Commissioner in the year 1884, was 
110 , equivalent to a specific gravity of 1 '0319. 

The following table shows the value of lactometer degrees 
in specific gravity : — 



Value of Lactometer Degrees in Specific 


Gravity. 


Lactometer. 


Gravity. 


Lactometer. 


Gravity. 


Lactometer. 


Gravity. 


O 


I * OOOOO 


18 


I*00522 


36 


I*OI044 


I 


I * OOO29 


19 


I*0055I 


37 


I*0I073 


2 


1*00058 


20 


1*00580 


38 


1*01102 


3 


I * OO087 


21 


I * 00609 


39 


I-OII3I 


4 


1*00116 


22 


1*00638 


40 


1*01160 


5 


1*00145 


23 


I ' O0667 


4i 


1*01189 


6 


1-00174 


24 


1*00696 


42 


I'OIZIO 


7 


1 • 00203 


25 


1*00725 


43 


1*01247 


8 


1*00232 


26 


I-00754 


44 


1*01276 


9 


1 '00261 


27 


1*00783 


45 


1*01305 


10 


1*00290 


28 


1*00812 


46 


I 01334 


11 


1*00319 


29 


1*00841 


47 


1*01363 


12 


1 * 00348 


30 


1*00870 


48 


1*01392 


13 


1*00377 


31 


1*00899 


49 


1*01421 


14 


1 '00406 


32 


1*00928 


5o 


1*01450 


15 


1*00435 


33 


1*00957 


5i 


1*01479 


16 


1*00464 


34 


I "00986 


52 


I -01508 


17 


1*00493 


35 


1*01015 


53 


I -01537 



56 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 



Value of Lactometer Degrees in Specific Gravity 
{continued). 



Lactometer. 


Gravity. 


Lactometer. 


Gravity. 


Lactometer. 


Gravity. 


54 


1*01566 


77 


1*02233 


IOO 


I '02900 


55 


1*01595 


78 


1-02262 


101 


1 '02929 


56 


I*Ol624 


79 


I'0229I 


I02 


I -02958 


57 


I*Ol653 


80 


I-02320 


I03 


1*02987 


58 


I*Ol682 


81 


1-02349 


I04 


I*030l6 


59 


I*OI7lI 


82 


1-02378 


I05 


I -03045 


60 


I*OI740 


83 


1*02407 


I06 


1-03074 


61 


1*01769 


84 


1-02436 


I07 


I-03I03 


62 


1*01798 


85 


1-02465 


I08 


1-03132 


63 


I*Ol827 


86 


1-02494 


IO9 


I*03l6l 


64 


1*01856 


87 


I-02523 


no 


1*03190 


65 


I*Ol885 


88 


I-02552 


in 


1*03219 


66 


1*01914 


89 


I-02581 


112 


1*03248 


67 


I-OI943 


90 


I*026l9 


113 


I*03277 


68 


I*OI972 


9 1 


1-02639 


114 


1*03306 


69 


I* 0200 I 


92 


I-02668 


ii5 


1-03335 


70 


I*02030 


93 


1*02697 


116 


1 -03364 


7i 


I*02059 


94 


l*02726 


117 


1 -03393 


72 


I* 02088 


95 


1*02755 


118 


1*03422 


73 


1*02117 


96 


1 '02784 


119 


1*03451 


74 


1*02146 


97 


1*02813 


120 


1*03480 


75 


I*02I75 


98 


1*02842 






76 


I * 02204 


99 


1*02871 







Chemical Examination, 
b. Water, Total Solids, and Ash. — Five grammes of the 
fresh milk are weighed in a tared platinum dish, having a 
flat bottom, which is placed on a water-bath, where it is 
allowed to remain for about three hours. It is then trans- 
ferred to a water-oven, and the dish is subsequently 
weighed, from time to time, until the weight becomes con- 
stant. The loss in weight is the water present ; the differ- 
ence between the weight of the platinum capsule and its 
weight with the remaining contents gives the amount of 
total solids, which, in milk of good quality, should not be 
under 1 2 per cent. The inorganic salts (ash) can now be 
determined by carefully incinerating the residual contents 
of the capsule. Too high a temperature is to be avoided 
in this process, in order to prevent the fusion of the ash, 



MILK. 5 7 

which should, however, be ignited until it shows a greyish- 
white colour. The amount of ash in genuine milk ranges from 
0*70 to cr 80 per cent. The addition of water naturally de- 
creases this proportion as well as that of the total milk-solids. 

c. Fat, Milk Solids not Fat, Caseine, and Milk Sugar. — An 
approximate estimation of the fat in milk was formerly 
made by the use of the creamometer. This instrument con- 
sists simply of a long glass tube, provided at its upper end 
with a scale. The milk under examination is introduced 
into the tube and allowed to remain at rest for about 24 
hours, or until the stratum of cream has completely collec- 
ted upon its surface ; the quantity is then read off by means 
of the attached scale. The results afforded by the creamo- 
meter are, however, far from reliable. Cream is really 
milk rich in fat, caseine, etc., and the quantitative relation it 
bears to the true amount of fat present is not always a 
direct one. A recent form of lactoscope, devised by Feser, 
is less objectionable, and is in very general use for the 
rapid estimation of fat in milk. It consists essentially of a 
glass cylinder, provided with two scales, one being gradua- 
ted into c.c, the other, into percentages of fat. In the 
lower end of the instrument is a contraction, in which is 
placed a cylindrical piece of white glass, graduated with 
well-defined black lines. In using the lactoscope, 4 c.c. 
of the milk are introduced into the instrument by means of 
a pipette, and water is gradually added, with shaking, until 
the black marks on the small white cylinder become just 
visible. Upon now referring to the c.c. scale, the quantity 
of water used to effect the necessary dilution is ascertained, 
and the corresponding percentage of fat in the sample is 
indicated by the percentage scale.* 

In the gravimetric determination of the fat (butter), 
10 grammes of the milk are put into a tared platinum dish, 
containing a weighed amount of dry sand. The milk is 
evaporated as previously directed, the mixture being con- 

* For description of the " Lactocrete," see 'Analyst,' Jan. 1887. 



58 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

stantly stirred with a small platinum spatula. The residue 
is repeatedly treated with warm ether or petroleum naphtha 
of 70 B., and the solutions poured upon a small filter. The 
several filtrates are collected in a tared beaker, and 
cautiously evaporated, until constant weight is obtained. 
This will give the amount oifat. The undissolved residue 
remaining in the platinum capsule, or the difference between 
the quantity of fat and that of the total milk-solids, affords 
the proportion of milk solids not fat contained, which, in 
unadulterated milk, should amount to 9 per cent. It has 
been determined by experiment, that every percentage of 
milk-solids not fat, increases the specific gravity of milk 
0*00375, whereas each percentage of fat decreases the 
gravity O'OOio, and the proportion of solids not fat can be 
calculated from the data afforded by the lactometer and 
Feser's lactoscope by means of the formula :— 

S - A 

0-00375 ' 

where S is the specific gravity of the milk, as shown by the 
lactometer, and A is the remainder obtained upon multi- 
plying the percentage of fat indicated by the lactoscope by 
o*ooi and subtracting the residue from 1 *oooo. 

The residue remaining after the extraction of the fat is 
treated with warm water containing a few drops of acetic 
acid, or with dilute (80 per cent.) alcohol, in order to remove 
the sugar. The residue is dried until it ceases to decrease in 
weight, and is then weighed. The difference between the 
original weight of the sand and the weight of the sand and 
residue combined represents approximately the amount of 
caseine (albuminoids) present. As this contains a certain 
proportion of ash it is to be subsequently ignited, and the 
ash obtained deducted from the first weight. The alcoholic 
sugar solution is evaporated to dryness and weighed. The 
residue is then incinerated and the weight of ash is subtracted. 
The difference is the amount of milk sugar contained. The 



MILK. 59 

sugar may likewise be determined by means of Fehling's 
solution (see pp. 37, in). About 50 c.c. of the milk is 
warmed with a small quantity of acetic acid to precipi- 
tate the caseine, which is removed by filtration, and the fil- 
trate diluted to 500 c.c. ; the test is then applied. 10 c.c. of 
the copper solution represents 0*067 gramme of milk sugar. 

The sugar in milk can also be estimated by the polari- 
scope (see under Sugar, p. 112). In case the Ventzke- 
Scheibler instrument is used, 65 * 36 grammes of the sample 
are weighed out and introduced into a 100 cc. flask ; about 
5 cc. of plumbic basic acetate solution is added, and the 
liquid is well shaken, and then allowed to stand at rest for 
a few minutes. It is next filtered, its volume made up to 
the 100 cc. mark, and the 20 cm. tube filled and the read- 
ing made ; this divided by 2 gives the percentage of sugar 
in the milk. 

Mr. A. Adams * has recently proposed a method of milk 
analysis which consists in first placing 5 cc. of the sample in 
a tared beaker, and then introducing a weighed paper coil 
made of blotting paper from which all fatty matter has 
previously been removed by washing with ether. As soon 
as the milk is completely absorbed, the paper coil is re- 
moved and dried at ioo°. The increase of weight gives 
the amount of total solids. The fat is next extracted by 
petroleum naphtha or ether, and its weight determined. 
The proportion of solids not fat is ascertained by again 
drying and weighing the exhausted coil. 

The standards adopted by the English Society of Public 
Analysts for pure milk, are : — 

Per cent. 

Specific gravity 1*030 

Ash 0*70 

Solids not fat 9"oo 

Fat 2*50 

Total solids 11*50 

Water 88-50 

* ' Analyst,' x. pp. 46-54. 



60 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

In the State of New York, the legal standards for 
milk are that it shall not contain more than 88 per cent, of 
water, nor less than 12 per cent, of milk solids, and 3 per 
cent, of fat. 

In Massachusetts the law fixing a chemical standard of 
purity for milk reads : " In all cases of prosecution, if the 
milk shall be shown upon analysis to contain more than 
87 per cent, of water, or to contain less than 1 3 per cent, of 
milk solids, it shall be deemed, for the purpose of this Act, 
to be adulterated." 

The Board of Health of New Jersey fixes the minimum 
amount of total solids at 12 per cent, and the maximum 
amount of water at 88 per cent. In Paris, the minimum 
limits for condemnation are the following : — 

Fat, 2*70; milk-sugar, 4*50; caseine, albumen, and 
ash, 4* 30 ; total solids, 1 1 • 50. 

The following proportion can be employed in the calcu- 
lation of the amount of pure milk (x) contained in a 
suspected sample : — 

From the total solids : — 

12* 5 : total solids found = 100 : x. 

From the solids not fat: — 

9*30 : solids not fat = 100 : x. 

From the sugar : — 

4-40 : sugar found = 100 : x. 

From the specific gravity : — 

1 '030 : sp. gr. = 100 : x. 

In most cases the determination of the total milk-solids 
and the fat (the difference being the solids not fat) furnishes 
all the data required for determining the amount of water- 
ing which a sample of milk has undergone. The Society 
of Public Analysts use 9 as the average percentage of solids 



PLATE IV. 




Cream x 420. 




00898 



Cows Milk x 420. 



»RTOTYPE. E. BIERSTADT, N. v. 



MILK. 6 1 

not fat in pure milk (which is generally considered as too 

low) and adopt the formula : — 

ioo c 
S = x, 

9 
in which x represents the percentage of genuine milk, and 
S the solids not fat. 

In skimmed milk the percentage of fat removed (x) can 
be ascertained by the formula : — 

^lS-f=x, 
9-o 

in which S = solids not fat, and f = the fat found. In 
case the sample has been subjected to both skimming and 
watering, the water added (x) can be calculated from the 
formula* : — 

ioo+ 2*5 c r 
ioo — — 2 S — f = x. 

9 

The addition of mineral salts to milk is detected by the 
increased proportion of ash found ; the presence of an 
abnormal amount of common salt by the high proportion 
of chlorine present in the ash, which in pure milk should 
never exceed o * 14 per cent. The use of sodium bicarbonate, 
borax, etc., is also detected by the analysis of the ash. 
Glycerine, salicylic acid, flour, and starch, if added, can be 
extracted from the milk-solids and their identity established 
by the usual characteristic reactions. 

The microscope is of great service in the determination 
of the quality of milk, and especially in the detection of 
the presence of abnormal bodies, such as pus, colostrum 
cells, and blood. In pure cow's milk the globules are in 
constant motion • their usual size is 50^ of an inch, but this 
depends upon the nature of the food used. Plates IV. and 
V., which represent cream, pure milk, skimmed milk, and 
milk containing colostrum cells, were taken from photo- 
micrographic negatives furnished through the kindness of 
Mr. Martin. 

* Blyth. 



62 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

Numerous cases of severe illness have from time to time 
been developed by the use of milk which was apparently- 
free from any of the usual adulterants. In a recent issue 
of the ' Philadelphia Medical News' (Sept. 1886) an instance 
of wholesale milk poisoning at Long Branch is described, 
and the results reached by a careful study of the epidemic 
are given. It was demonstated that warm milk, fresh 
from the cow, if placed in closed cans under conditions 
which retarded the dissipation of its heat, may suffer fer- 
mentation resulting within a few hours in the genesis of 
a sufficient quantity of a poisonous ptomaine (termed 
tyrotoxicon) to produce dangerous toxic effects in those 
drinking it. 

Tyrotoxicon was isolated from the milk, and obtained in 
needle-shaped crystals, which reduced iodic acid and gave 
a blue coloration when treated with potassium ferricyanide 
or ferric chloride. Prof. Victor C. Vaughan * discovered the 
same alkaloid in poisonous cheese, and has also detected its 
presence in ice-cream that had been the cause of sickness. 
In this connection it is of importance to note that the 
addition of gelatine to ice-cream is occasionally practised : 
in case this substance is used while in a state of incipient 
decomposition, the danger of the bacteria and other 
organisms present subsequently resuming activity is con- 
siderable. It has been repeatedly and conclusively demon- 
strated that milk from cows affected with tuberculosis and 
other complaints, is capable of propagating the seeds of 
disease, especially in children. The presence of impure 
water in milk constitutes another source of danger. A test 
based upon the fact that water which has received sewage 
contamination often contains nitrites, is applied by first 
coagulating the suspected milk with acetic acid, then filter- 
ing and adding to the filtrate a few cc. of an equal mixture 
of sulphanilic acid and naphthylamine sulphate, when, in 
presence of nitrites, a rose-red colour will be produced. 

* " Ein Ptomain aus giftigem Kase," Zeit. f. Phys. Chem., x. p. 2, 1886. 



PLATE V. 




Skimmed Cows Milk x 420. 




H>* 



Colostrum in Cows Milk x 420. 



( 63 ) 



BUTTER. 

Butter is the fat of milk, containing small proportions 
of caseine, water, and salt (the latter mostly added), and 
possessing a somewhat granular structure. In its prepara- 
tion the fat-globules of cream are made to coalesce by the 
process of churning, and are removed from the residual 
buttermilk. Its colour, due to lactochrome, varies from 
white to yellow, according to the breed and food of the 
cow. The fatty constituents of butter are butyric, caproic, 
caprylic, capric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, and oleic acids, 
which are combined with glycerine as ethers ; the first four 
are soluble in hot water, the remainder insoluble. It is 
very probable that butter fat is composed of complex 
glycerides, i.e. tri-acid (presumably oleic, palmitic, and 
butyric) ethers, of the following character : — 



CoH. 



'O.QH ? 
O.C l6 H 31 

O.CigHaaO 



The table on p. 64 exhibits a summary of the results 
obtained by various chemists by the analysis of numerous 
specimens of genuine butter. 

Dr. Elwyn Waller found the following variations in the 
constituents of pure butter : — Fat, from 83 to 85 ; water, 
from 8 to 10 ; curd, from 1 to 3; salts, from 3 to 5 per 
cent. 

Butter fat fuses at 28 to 37°, and at 37 "j its 
specific gravity ranges from 0*91200 to o # 91400. The 



6 4 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 



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Fleischmann / f ^ 

Blyth 

Schacht 



BUTTER. 65 

most common adulterations of butter consist in the addi- 
tion of water, salt, colouring matters, and various foreign 
fats (notably oleomargarine). The first two admixtures 
are easily recognised by the proximate analysis ; the 
detection of the last sophistication involves a somewhat 
elaborate examination of the fatty constituents of the 
butter. 

Proximate Analysis. 

About five grammes of the well-averaged sample are 
weighed out in a tared platinum capsule, and dried for 
three hours (or until constant weight is obtained) over a 
water-bath (or over a low flame, constantly stirring with a 
thermometer), and the decrease in weight (water) ascer- 
tained. As a rule, the proportion of water in genuine 
butter varies from 8 to 16 per cent. The residue in the 
capsule is then melted at a gentle heat, and the liquid fat 
cautiously poured off from the remaining caseine and salt, 
these latter being afterwards more completely exhausted 
by washing with ether. Upon now drying the residue, the 
loss in weight will give the amount of fat present. The 
caseine is next determined by the loss in weight obtained 
upon incinerating the matters left undissolved by the ether, 
the remaining inorganic matter being the salt contained. 

The proportion of fat present in genuine butter ranges 
from 82 to 90 per cent. ; it should never be below 80 per 
cent. The average amount of caseine is 2 * 5 per cent. ; 
greater proportions, frequently occurring in unadulterated 
butter, render it more liable to become rancid. The ash 
should consist of sodium chloride, with some calcium 
phosphate ; the amount of salt is quite variable, but it 
usually ranges from 2 to 7 per cent. The proportion of 
ingredients, not fat, in butter may be conveniently deter- 
mined by melting 10 grammes of the sample in a 
graduated tube, provided with a scale at its lower end, 
which is narrowed, adding 30 c.c. of petroleum naphtha, 

F 



66 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

and shaking the mixture. After standing a few hours, the 
non-fatty matters collect in the lower portion of the tube, 
and their volume is read off. Genuine butter is said to 
yield from 12 to 14 per cent, (assuming each c.c. to equal 
one gramme), while adulterated specimens may show 20 
per cent, of matters not fat. 

Examination of the Butter-fat. 

The most common and important sophistication of 
butter consists in the addition of foreign fats, embracing 
both animal fats (oleomargarine and lard) and vegetable oils 
(cotton-seed, olive, rape-seed, cocoa-nut, almond, palm, etc.). 
Of these, oleomargarine is doubtless the most often em- 
ployed. Oleomargarine is the more fusible portion of beef 
fat, and is prepared by straining the melted fat, allowing 
the oil thus obtained to stand for some time at a tempera- 
ture of about 24 , when most of the stearine and palmitine 
will separate out, and cooling the remaining oil until it 
solidifies. This is next churned with milk, a little colouring 
matter (annato) being added, and the product is then 
chilled by mixing it with ice ; salt is now added, and the 
mass is finally worked up into lumps. 

It is stated that fifteen establishments in the United 
States are engaged in the manufacture of oleomargarine, 
the annual production in the State of New York alone 
being about 20,000,000 pounds. The rapid increase in the 
manufacture of oleomargarine is shown by the following 
statistics: — In 1880 this country exported 39,236,655 
pounds of butter and 20,000,000 pounds of oleomargarine, 
while in 1885 the exportation of butter declined to 
21,638,128 pounds, and the exportation of oleomargarine 
reached nearly 38,000,000 pounds. The present production 
is said to approximate 50,000,000 pounds per annum. The 
most characteristic difference in the composition of genuine 
butter and oleomargarine consists in the greater proportion 
of soluble fats contained in the former. This is illustrated 



BUTTER. 



6 7 



by the following comparative analysis of the two products 
(Mege Mouries) : — 





Genuine Butter. 


Oleomargarine. 


Water 

Solids 


per cent. 
II-968 
88-032 


per cent. 
1 1 ' 203 

88-797 


Solids : 

Insoluble fats 

Soluble fats 

Caseine 

Salt 


IOO "OOO 

75-256 
7-432 
0'l82 
5-I62 


100,000 

8I-I9I 
1-823 
0*62I 
5*l62 




88-032 


88*797 



Lard is likewise occasionally used in the United States 
as an admixture to butter, the product, u lardine," being 
sold either as oleomargarine-butter, or as the genuine 
article. Dr. Munsell mentions a factory in New York city 
where the weekly output of larded butter is 5000 pounds. 
As a result of the efforts of the New York State Dairy 
Commission, it has been estimated that the sale of imita- 
tion butter in this State in 1885 suffered a decrease of 
about 60 per cent., although the quantity manufactured in 
the United States showed an increase of 50 per cent. 

The specific gravity and melting point of butter have 
been suggested as criteria for its purity ; in most cases, 
however, these determinations possess a rather limited 
value ; as already stated, butter fat, at the temperature of 
37°*7, has a density ranging from 0*91200 to 0*91400. 

The relation between the specific gravity of a fat and the 
proportion of insoluble acids contained was first noticed by 
Bell. This is shown in the following table which refers 
to pure butter fat. 



Specific Gravity 
at 37°'7- 


Per cent. 
Insoluble Acids 


Specific Gravity 
at 3 7°*7. 


Per cent. 
Insoluble Ac 


C91382 
0*9I346 
0*91337 
0*91290 


87-47 
87-89 
87-98 
88*48 


0*91286 
0*91276 
0*91258 
0-91246 


88-52 
88*62 
88*80 
89-00 



F 2 



68 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 



The following results have been obtained by the analysis 
of samples of various animal fats, and oleomargarine 
butter. 





Specific Gravity 
at 37° '5- 


Per cent, Fixed 
Fatty Acids. 


Mutton suet 

Beef suet 

Fine lard 

Dripping (commercial) 

Mutton dripping (genuine) 

Oleomargarine butter 

» j.) 

•* >j 

•* » 

" 5> 


0-90283 
0'90372 
0-90384 
O-90456 
0-90397 
0*90384 
0*90234 
O-90315 
0-90379 
0-90136 


95-56 
95-9I 
96*20 
94*67 
95*48 
94-34 
94-83 
95*04 
96*29 

95* 60 



It will be noticed that the fats mostly used to adulterate 
butter are of a lower density. Blyth regards a gravity 
below 0*911 (at 37 * 5) as clearly pointing to the presence 
of foreign fatty admixture. 

The specific gravity determination is made by means of 
the areometer, or by the gravity bottle ; numerous indirect 
methods have also been proposed. P. Casamajor * suggests 
a process for distinguishing genuine butter from oleomar- 
garine which is based upon the fact that the density of a 
liquid in which a body remains in equilibrium is the density 
of the body itself. As the result of his investigations 
it was found that pure butter at 15 would be held in 
equilibrium by alcohol of 53*7 per cent. (sp. gr. = 0-926), 
and that oleomargarine would remain in equilibrium, at 
the same temperature, in alcohol of 59-2 per cent. (sp. 
gr. =0-905). If equal volumes of alcohol of 53*7 per 
cent, and 59 "2 per cent. {i.e. an alcohol of 56-5 per cent.) 
are taken, and a drop of melted butter and of oleomargarine 
are delivered upon its surface, the former will sink to the 
bottom and the latter will remain at the top, so long as the 

* Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc, iii. p. 83. 



BUTTER. 69 

two globules are warm and liquid. In case the temperature 
of the alcohol is about 30 , the butter will solidify and also 
rise to the top, whereas the oleomargarine may remain 
liquid. On now keeping the alcohol for a short time at a 
temperature of 15° the oleomargarine becomes opaque, but 
remains at the top, while the solidified butter will sink to the 
bottom. If alcohol of 59*2 per cent, is employed, oleo- 
margarine will remain at the surface and genuine butter 
fall to the bottom at all temperatures above 15 , and at 
this temperature oleomargarine will be in equilibrium. 
Since not over 33 per cent, of butter is usually added to 
oleomargarine, it is proposed to use alcohol of 5 5 per cent., 
and consider as oleomargarine any sample which does not 
sink at 1 5° 

The foregoing method can be applied quantitatively by 
determining the strength of the alcohol which will keep in 
equilibrium a drop of the fat under examination. Since 
the difference between 59 '2 and 53*7 is 5*5, the difference 
between the strength of the alcohol used and 53 '7, divided 
by 5 ' 5 (or multiplied by O'l 8), will give the proportion 
of oleomargarine present. For example, if the globule 
is held in equilibrium at 15 in 57 per cent, alcohol, the 
sample contains about 60 per cent, of oleomargarine, for 
(57 - 53*7) x 0-18= 3*3 X 0-18 = 0-594 or, say, T %. 

The melting-point of butter is below that of most of its 
fatty adulterants ; as previously stated, it varies from 2 8° 
to 37° The determination is made either in the ordinary 
manner by means of a fine tube, or a little of the chilled 
sample is attached to a looped platinum wire, placed near 
the thermometer-bulb, in water which is gradually heated 
until fusion takes place. Blyth gives the following table of 
the melting-points of various fats : — 

o 

Butterine 31*3 

Cocoa butter 34*9 

Butter (average) 35 '8 

Beef dripping 43*8 



70 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

o 

Veal dripping 47*7 

Mixed 42*6 

Lard, from 42 to 45 

Ox fat, from about 48 „ 53 

Mutton fat, from about 50 „ 51 

Tallow 53*3 

Numerous qualitative tests have been proposed by various 
authorities for the detection of foreign fats in butter, of 
which the following are perhaps sometimes of use. It 
should be added that the value of these tests, when applied 
to mixtures, is limited and very uncertain. 

1. A little of the sample is heated in a test-tube : pure 
butter froths and acquires a brownish colour ; with foreign 
fats there is but little foaming, and, although the caseine 
present darkens, the liquid itself remains comparatively 
clear. 

2. If a sample containing oleomargarine is melted and 
the oil burned in an ordinary lamp-wick, a decided odour 
of burning tallow will be produced upon extinguishing the 
flame. Specimens of real butter, however, have been found 
to also emit a tallow-like odour. 

3. The melted sample is filtered and treated with boiling 
ether; pure butter fat dissolves much more readily than 
do lard and tallow. Upon adding methylic alcohol to the 
solution the latter fats are precipitated, whereas pure butter 
will remain in solution. 

4. If the filtered fat is distilled with a mixture of alcohol 
and sulphuric acid, the distillate will possess the odour of 
butyric ether in a very marked degree, in case it consists of 
butter.* 

5. The strained fat is treated with a solution of carbolic 
acid (1 part acid and 10 parts water) : genuine butter 
dissolves to a clear solution ; beef, mutton, and swine fat 

* The proportion of butyrine present in commercial oleomargarine 
is often sufficient in quantity to cause the characteristic odour of 
butyric ether to a noticeable degree. 



BUTTER. 7 1 

form two layers, the upper one becoming turbid upon 
cooling. 

6. If the sample consists of butter or oleomargarine, and 
is mixed with about ten parts of glycerine and the emulsion 
digested with a mixture of equal parts of ether and alcohol, 
two layers of solution will be produced, without any deposit 
of solid matter between them ; if, however, lard, suet, or 
starch is present it will become deposited between the 
layers. 

It has already been mentioned that butter differs from 
some of its fatty adulterants in containing a considerable 
proportion of fatty acids which are soluble in hot water, the 
acids present in most foreign fats being, on the other hand, 
almost entirely insoluble. The estimation of the relative 
amounts of soluble and insoluble acids contained in a fat 
possesses therefore much importance ; indeed, more signifi- 
cance attaches to this determination than to any other. The 
processes most frequently employed in the quantitative 
examination of butter fat are those of Koettstorfer, Hehner, 
and Reichert. 

Koettstorfer's method * is based upon the fact that, as 
butter fat contains the fatty acids, having a smaller mole- 
cular weight than those present in other fats, it must contain 
more molecules of acid, and will therefore require a greater 
amount of an alkali to effect saponication. The process is 
executed as follows : — One or two grammes of the filtered 
fat are weighed out in a narrow beaker and heated over a 
water-bath with about 25 c.c. of one-half normal alcoholic 
solution of potassium hydroxide. The saponification of 
the fat is assisted by repeated stirring; when it is com- 
pleted the beaker is removed from the bath, a few drops of 
alcoholic phenol-phthaleine added for an indicator, and the 
excess of potash used titrated back with one-half normal 
hydrochloric acid. It has been found that pure butter fat 
requires from 221-4 to 232-4 milligrammes of potassium 

* Fresenius' ' Zeitschrift,' 1879, p. 197. 



72 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

hydroxide for saponification. The following are the 
number of milligrammes of alkali necessary for the 
saponification of one gramme of various other fats : — 

mgr. 

Olive oil 191*8 

Rape-seed oil 178*7 

Oleomargarine 195 ' 5 

Beeftallow 196*5 

Lard I95'5 

Mutton suet iy7*o 

Dripping .. 197*0 

Taking 227 milligrammes as the average amount of 
potassium hydroxide required to saponify one gramme of 
pure butter fat, the following formula has been suggested 
for the estimation of the proportion of admixture in a 
suspected sample : — 

(227 — n) x 3*17 = x, 

in which n represents the number of milligrammes of 
potassium hydroxide used, and x the percentage of foreign 
fat added. In the Paris Municipal Laboratory, 221 milli- 
grammes of K(OH) are regarded as a standard for the 
saponification of one gramme of genuine butter. 

Cocoa-nut oil, unfortunately, requires a figure (250 mgr.) 
considerably above that of butter, and it is quite possible 
to prepare a mixture of this oil and oleomargarine, 
that by the foregoing test would show a result almost 
identical with that afforded by pure butter. Hehner's 
process* which is often employed for the determination of 
the insoluble fatty acids, is as follows : — About 4 grammes 
of the melted and strained sample are dissolved in 50 c.c. 
of alcohol, containing two grammes of potassium hydroxide 
in solution, and the mixture is heated until complete 
saponification takes place. The alcohol is removed by 
evaporation, the residue dissolved in 200 c.c. of water, and 
the fatty acids precipitated by adding dilute sulphuric acid 
to distinct acid reaction. The fatty acids are next melted 
by heating the liquid and are then allowed to cool, after 
* ' Zeitschrift fur Analytische Chernie,' 1877, p. 145. 



BUTTER. J$ 

which the insoluble acids are poured upon a tared filter 
and repeatedly washed with hot water until the washings 
cease to show acidity. The filter and contents are finally 
cautiously dried and weighed. In genuine butter the pro- 
portion of insoluble fatty acids ranges between 86 ' 5 and 
$7 ' 5 per cent. ; it should not be above 88 per cent.* Oleo- 
margarine, lard, mutton, beef, and poppy, palm, olive, and 
almond oils contain about 95 * 5 per cent, of insoluble acids.f 
The preceding process is also imperfect in not effecting 
the detection of cocoa-nut oil, which affords only about 
86 per cent, of insoluble fatty acids, and although the 
presence of any considerable proportion of this oil in 
butter would probably be indicated by the decreased melt- 
ing point of the admixture, an estimation of the soluble 
fatty acids is by far the most reliable means for its de- 
tection. For this determination Reichert's method { is 
eminently adapted. In this process advantage is taken of 
the facts that the amount of soluble acids in a mixture of 
fat bears a direct relation to the proportion of genuine 
butter present, and that, if the aqueous solution of a 
saponified fat is decomposed by an acid and heated to 
boiling, the greater portion of the soluble acids escape 
with the watery vapours and can be collected and de- 
termined in the distillate. The details of this method are 
essentially as follows : — 2\ grammes of the filtered sample 
are introduced into an Erlenmayer flask together with 
1 gramme of potassium hydroxide and 20 c.c. of dilute 
(80 per cent.) alcohol, and the mixture is heated over the 
water-bath until complete saponification is effected, and the 
alcohol entirely removed. The soap thus formed is dis- 
solved in 50 c.c. of water, and decomposed by adding 20 c.c. 
of dilute sulphuric acid (1 : 10). The flask is next connected 

* The French standard is 87 * 50 per cent. 

f The percentage of foreign fat (F) in a sample can be calculated by 
the formula F = (I — 88) x 13*3, in which I = the insoluble fatty acids. 
% Fresenius' Zeitschrift, 1879, p. 68. 



74 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

with a Liebig's condenser and the contents carefully dis- 
tilled until 50 c.c. have passed over. The distillate is now- 
freed from any insoluble acids possibly present by filtra- 
tion ; it is then titrated with decinormal soda solution, a 
few drops of litmus solution being employed as an indicator. 
As the result of numerous tests, it has been found that 
genuine butter, when examined by the above method, 
requires from 13 to 15 c.c. of the decinormal solution. The 
following are the number of c.c. required by various other 
fats :— 

Lard o'2 

Rape oil 0*25 

Kidney fat 0*25 

Olive oil o • 3 

Sesame oil °'35 

Oleomargarine o • 7 to 1 " 3 

Cocoa-nut oil 3 '7° 

Dr. Elwyn Waller* modifies the foregoing method of 
procedure by adding 50 c.c. of water to the contents of the 
flask remaining after the first distillation, and again 
distilling off 50 c.c, the process being repeated until the 
final distillate neutralises only o # i c.c. of the deci- 
normal alkali. With butter fat, it was found that the first 
distillate contained about 79 per cent, of the total volatile 
acids present. By means of this modification, a distinction 
between the rate of distillation of the volatile fatty acids of 
different fats is possible. The non-volatile acids left in the 
flask are washed several times with water, in order to 
remove the glycerine and potassium sulphate present, and 
are then dried and weighed. 

For estimating the percentage of pure butter fat in a 
sample of mixed fat, Reichert employed the formula : 
B = 7" 3 (m — 0*3), in which m is the number of c.c. of 
soda solution used in the titration. 

Baron Hiibl f has recently suggested a method for butter 
testing, which is founded upon the fact that the three series 

* Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc, viii. p. 6. 
f Dingl. Polyt. Journ., ccliii., p. 281. 



BUTTER. 75 

of fats (acetic, acrylic, and tetrolic), unite in different pro- 
portions with the halogens (iodine, bromine, and chlorine), 
to form addition products. Iodine has been found especially 
well adapted to the examination of fats. The standard 
solution employed is prepared by dissolving 25 grammes 
of iodine in 500 c.c. of 95 per cent, alcohol, and adding to 
the solution a solution of 30 grammes of mercuric chloride 
in 500 c.c. of alcohol. The reagent is then standardised by 
means of a solution of 24 grammes of sodium hypo- 
sulphite in 1 litre of water. The test is applied as 
follows : — 1 gramme of the sample under examination is 
introduced into a flask and dissolved in 10 c.c. of pure 
chloroform. The iodine reagent is then gradually added 
from a burette, the mixture being well shaken, until the 
coloration produced indicates that an excess is present, even 
after standing for about two hours ; 15 c.c. of a 10 per cent, 
potassium iodide solution and 150 c.c. of water are then 
added and the excess of iodine present determined by means 
of the sodium hyposulphite solution, and deducted from 
the total quantity used. The amount of iodine (in grammes) 
absorbed is calculated to 100 grammes of the fat ; this is 
termed the iodine number. The examination of numerous 
samples of genuine butter and oleomargarine, and other 
fats, made at the laboratory of the New York State Dairy 
Commissioner, furnished the following results :* — 

Iodine Number. 

Genuine butter from 30*5^43-0 

Oleomargarine „ 50*9 „ 54*9 

Cocoa-nut oil 6*8 

Lard 55'o 

Mutton fat 57*3 

Oleine 82*3 

Olive oil 83*0 

Pea-nut oil 96 • o 

Sweet-almond oil 102 'o 

Cotton-seed oil io8'o 

Poppy oil i34*o 

* R. W. Moore notes that a certain mixture of lard and cocoa-nut 
oil would give an iodine number identical with that of butter fat. — 
('Analyst,' x. p. 224.) 



76 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

It has been proposed to differentiate between butter and 
oleomargarine by a determination of the proportion of 
glycerine contained. Liebschiitz * employs the following 
process for this estimation : 10 grammes of the sample 
are saponified by heating with 20 grammes of barium 
hydroxide, until the water of crystallisation has been almost 
entirely expelled. Alcohol is then added with constant 
stirring ; saponification quickly takes place, and is com- 
pleted by evaporating the mass nearly to dryness. The 
glycerine is extracted with boiling water, the solution 
filtered, and the barium contained removed by means of 
sulphuric acid. The filtrate from the barium sulphate is 
then concentrated by evaporation, and the excess of sul- 
phuric acid present neutralised by adding a little barium 
carbonate. The filtered liquid is now again evaporated to 
a small volume, and most of the salts present precipitated 
by addition of absolute alcohol. After filtration the alco- 
holic solution is evaporated over the water-bath, then dried 
at ioo° until constant weight is obtained. It is finally 
ignited and the proportion of glycerine contained estimated 
by the loss in weight sustained. This process is certainly 
far from being exact, owing principally to the volatilisation 
of glycerine that occurs in the evaporation of its aqueous 
and even alcoholic solutions. The following results were 
obtained upon treating genuine butter and oleomargarine 
according to the above method : — 

Per cent. Glycerine. 

Butter 3-75 

Oleomargarine 7-00 

Gelatine is said to have lately been used as an adulterant 
of butter, more especially of artificial butter. Its detection 
is a matter of some difficulty. The following method has 
been suggested. A considerable quantity of the suspected 
butter is boiled with water, the solution strained, a drop of 
acetic acid and a little potassium ferrocyanide added, and 
* Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc, vii. p. 134. 



BUTTER. J J 

the liquid boiled until the precipitate formed becomes 
bluish in colour. The solution is then filtered hot and 
the filtrate examined for gelatine by adding tannic acid to, 
or conducting chlorine gas through it. 

A sample lately imported under the name of "butter 
preservative " was found by the author to consist of a dilute 
solution of phosphoric acid. The use of this agent does 
not, however, appear to be prevalent to any great extent.* 

Artificial Colouring. — The list of colouring matters said 
to be added to butter includes the vegetable dyes, annato, 
carotin, fustic, turmeric, marigold, and saffron ; the coal- 
tar colour, Victoria yellow (potassium dinitrocresylate), and 
Martius yellow (potassium dinitronaphthalate), and the 
mineral pigment chrome yellow (plumbic chromate). Of 
the foregoing, annato and carrot colour appear to be most 
commonly employed. Mr. Edward W. Martinj has proposed 
a method for the isolation of the former which consists in 
dissolving the butter in carbon disulphide, and shaking the 
solution with a dilute solution of potassium hydroxide, in 
which the colouring matter dissolves ; it is subsequently 
identified by further tests. According to Mr. R. W. 
Moore,J the presence of carotin in butter may be detected 
by first agitating the carbon disulphide solution of the fat 
with alcohol, which fails to extract this colour. Upon 
now adding to the mixture a drop of dilute ferric chloride 
solution, again shaking the liquid and then putting it aside 
for a short time, the alcoholic solution dissolves the carrot 
colour, and if no other colouring matter is contained in the 
butter, leaves the carbon disulphide colourless. 

The artificially coloured butter may be dissolved in 
alcohol and tested with the following reagents : — 

(a) Nitric acid : greenish coloration, saffron. 

(b) Sugar solution and hydrochloric acid : red colora- 
tion, saffron. 

* Samples invoiced as "butter flavouring," and consisting of 
butyric acid, have also been imported. 

t ' Analyst,' x. p. 163. X Ibid., xi. p. 163. 



78 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

(c) Ammonia: brownish coloration, turmeric. 

(d) Silver nitrate : blackish coloration, marigold. 

(e) Evaporate the alcoholic solution to dryness and add 
concentrated sulphuric acid : greenish-blue coloration, 
annato ; blue coloration, saffron. 

(f) Hydrochloric acid : decolorisation, with formation 
of yellow crystalline precipitate, Victoria or Martius yellow. 

(g) Separation of a heavy and insoluble yellow powder, 
chrome yellow (see p. 130). 

Microscopic Examination. — The microscopic examina- 
tion of butter has lately received considerable attention 
as a means for the detection of the presence of foreign 
fats. Genuine butter generally exhibits under the micro- 
scope a crowded mass of globules of fat, fatty crystals 
being commonly absent. In oleomargarine a more crys- 
talline structure is observed, with pear-shaped masses 
of fat and but few globules. While the presence of 
crystals in a sample may justly be regarded as suspicious, 
it is by no means a positive evidence of adulteration, 
since, under certain circumstances, pure butter may 
present the same indications. In applying the micro- 
scopic test, a small portion of the fat is made into a thin 
layer on the slide, and then protected with a glass cover, 
applied with rather gentle pressure. 

Plate VI.* represents the microscopic appearance of 
genuine butter and oleomargarine. It will be observed 
that in butter (Fig. 1) numerous globules but no crystals 
of fat are presented, the crystals present being those of 
salt. In oleomargarine (Fig. 2) the distinctive pear-shaped 
masses of fat, accompanied by only a small number of 
fatty globules, are to be seen. Dr. Thomas Taylor (of the 
U.S. Department of Agriculture), has made an elaborate 
investigation of the microscopic appearance of various fats 

* The author is indebted to Mr. Edward W. Martin for the 
negatives used in the preparation of these and other photomicrographs 
of fats. 



PLATE VI. 




Fig. 1, Butter x 400. 




Fig. 2, Oleomargarine X 400. 



4RTOTTP6. E. BIERSTAOT, 



PLATE VJI 




Butter X 40. 



Butter x 40. 




BUTTER. 79 

when viewed by polarised light. He regards the presence 
of peculiar globular crystals and the black cross commonly 
termed St. Andrew's cross as characteristic of genuine 
butter.* Lard, beef, and other fats are said to exhibit dif- 
ferent and, to some extent, distinctive crystalline forms. 
Prof. Weber,| however, affirms that mixtures of lard and 
tallow fat, under certain conditions, cannot be distinguished 
from butter by means of this method of examination. 
More recently, Dr. Taylor states that the distinguishing 
difference between butter and other fats under the micro- 
scope is that the former, when observed by polarised light 
through a selenite, exhibits a uniform tint, whereas the 
latter shows prismatic colours. Although the results of 
these investigations cannot as yet be considered as perfectly 
satisfactory or conclusive, they certainly are entitled to 
rank as a highly valuable and important step in advance 
of the optical processes hitherto employed. 

Plate VII. exhibits the appearance of butter, oleomar- 
garine, beef, and some other fats, when viewed by the micro- 
scope and polarised light. It will be noticed that, while a 
discrimination between lard and butter is readily made, 
oleomargarine presents the St. Andrew's cross, stated to be 
characteristic of genuine butter. These photomicrographs 
represent the results of investigations made in the Chemical 
Division of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. 

The question of the sanitary effects of oleomargarine and 
other substitutes for butter, has been studied by many 
scientists, and with very discordant results. Doubtless the 
great divergence of opinion which at present exists, is 
largely due to the fact that the artificial products examined 
have been made according to different processes, and with 
varying regard to the quality of the fats used in their 

* Vide ' Proceedings of the American Microscopical Society,' May 
1885. 

f ' Bulletin of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station,' March 1st, 
1886. 



80 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

manufacture, and to the degree of care and cleanliness 
observed. The attention of the American public has very 
lately been directed to the oleomargarine question, by the 
recent enactment of a national law imposing a tax upon 
the manufacture of the article. 

Without entering to any great extent into the subject of 
the wholesomeness of artificial butter as it is generally 
met with in commerce, it will be of interest to refer to the 
conclusions reached by two or three sanitarians who have 
devoted particular attention to this aspect of the question. 
Prof. W. O. Atwater* summarises the results of his 
investigation of oleomargarine as follows : — 

" i. The common kinds of imitation butter, oleomar- 
garine, butterine, etc., when properly made, agree very 
closely in chemical composition, digestibility, and nutritive 
value with butter from cow's milk. 

"2. In fulfilling one of the most important functions of 
food, namely, that of supplying the body with heat and 
muscular energy, they, with butter, excell in efficiency all, 
or nearly all, our other common food materials. 

" 3. Considering the low cost at which they can be pro- 
duced, as well as their palatability and nutritive value, they 
form a food product of very great economical importance, 
and one which is calculated to greatly benefit a large class 
of our population whose limited incomes make good dairy 
butter a luxury. 

" 4. Imitation butter, like many other manufactured food 
materials, is liable (but in actual commerce has been found 
not to be so) to be rendered unwholesome by improper 
materials and methods of manufacture. It is also open 
to the especial objection that it is largely sold as genuine 
butter. The interests of the public, therefore, demand 
that it should be subjected to competent official inspec- 
tion, and that it should be sold for what it is, and not 
as genuine butter." 

* Bradstreet's, June 19, 1886. 



BUTTER. 8 1 

Dr. S. B. Sharpies * states : " When well made, it (oleo- 
margarine) is a very fair imitation of genuine butter ; being 
inferior to the best butter, but much superior to the low 
grades of butter too commonly found in the market. So 
far as its influence on health is concerned, I can see no 
objection to its use. Its sale as genuine butter is a com- 
mercial fraud, and as such, very properly condemned by 
the law. As to its prohibition by law, the same law which 
prohibited it should also prohibit the sale of lard and 
tallow, and more especially all low-grade butters, which are 
far more injurious to health than a good sweet article of 
oleomargarine. A good deal has been said in regard to 
the poor grade of fats from which the oleomargarine is 
made. Any one making such assertions in regard to the 
fats is simply ignorant of the whole subject. When a fat 
has become in the least tainted, it can no longer be used 
for this purpose, as it is impossible to remove the odour 
from the fat after it has once acquired it." 

Per contra, Dr. R. B. Clark, in an exhaustive report on 
butter,! affirms with great decision, that artificial butter is 
not a wholesome article of food, for the following reasons : — 

" i. On account of its indigestibility. 

" 2. On account of its insolubility when made from animal 
fats. 

" 3. On account of its liability to carry germs of disease 
into the human system. 

if 4. On account of the probability of its containing, when 
made under certain patents, unhealthy ingredients." 

The two last grounds for condemning oleomargarine are 
evidently affected by, and, in fact, dependent upon the 
character of the fat and the exercise of care employed in 
its manufacture. In regard to the relative digestibility of 
butter and its imitations, actual experiments have been 

* Fourth Armual Report (1883) Mass. State Board of Health, p. 30. 
f Second Annual Report of the New York State Dairy Com- 
missioner, pp. 291-392. 

G 



82 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

made by several chemists. A. Mayer,* from the results of 
feeding human beings for three days on butter and on 
oleomargarine, found that i ■ 6 per cent, less of the latter 
was absorbed by the system than of the former, and 
inclines to the opinion, that with healthy persons this pro- 
portion is so inconsiderable, that it is of little or no im- 
portance. Dr. Clark considers these experiments of too 
limited duration to be regarded as conclusive, although, so 
far as they went, the results reached coincided with those 
obtained by him by a more exhaustive investigation. Dr. 
Clark has made an examination of the artificial digestion 
of butter as compared with oleomargarine and other fats, 
including beef and mutton suet, and lard, cotton-seed, 
sesame^ and cod-liver oils. The method of examination 
pursued was as follows : — About 2 grammes of the melted 
fat was added to a digestive fluid consisting of o * 33 gramme 
of "extractum pancreatis," and 0*33 gramme of sodium 
bicarbonate, dissolved in 10 c.c. of distilled water. This 
mixture was introduced into a test-tube, well shaken, and 
then exposed to a temperature of 40 . The contents of 
the test-tube were microscopically examined at the lapse 
of intervals of one, four, and twelve hours. It was found 
from these tests that cod-liver oil exhibited the most perfect 
state of emulsion, after which came genuine butter, next 
lard oil, and then commercial " oleo." Plate VIII. repre- 
sents the results obtained from the experiments made with 
butter and commercial oleomargarine, as presented at the 
end of one, four, and twelve hours. The globules of 
butter-fat, it will be observed, are smaller in size and more 
uniform in appearance. Dr. Clark likewise instituted ex- 
periments which tended to demonstrate the relative insolu- 
bility of the fats used in the preparation of artificial 
butter. 

* ' Landwirthschaftliche Versuchsstation,' ii. p. 215. 



PLATE VIII 




Oleomargarine 1 hour X 250. 



A M 







F^ 




Butter 4 hours X 250. 







Butter 12 hours X 230. 



Oleomargarine 4 hours X 2SO. 




Oleomargarine 12 hours X 250. 



ARTIFICIAL DIGESTION OF FATS. 



( 8 3 ) 



CHEESE. 

Cheese consists essentially of the caseine and albumen of 
milk, together with water, fat, lactic acid, and mineral 
salts. It is prepared by the coagulation of milk by 
means of rennet, and is usually obtained from cow's milk 
(either fresh, skimmed, or sour), although the milk of the 
goat, ewe, and other animals is occasionally used. Its 
colour is very often due to the addition of annato. The 
following table exhibits the composition of the best-known 
varieties of cheese, according to the analysis of various 
chemists : — 





Water. 


Fat. 


Caseine 

or 
Nitro- 
genous 
Matter. 


Milk 

Sugar. 


Free 

Acid, as 
Lactic. 


Ash. 


Composition 
of Fat. 


Variety. 


Soluble 
Acids. 


Insolu- 
ble 
Acids. 


American (pale) 
American (red) 
Cheddar 
Stilton .. .. 
Gloucester 
Dutch . . 
Roquefort 

Brie 

Cheshire .. 
Gruyere 
Gorgonzola 
Neufchatel 


per cent. 

3«*55 
28-63 

35'6o 
23*57 
35'75 
41-30 
32-26 
51-87 
37-11 
33-66 
31-85 
37*87 

5i-3o 

27-56 


per cent 

35*93 
38-24 
3i*57 
39*13 
28-35 
22-78 
34-38 
24*83 
30-68 
30-69 

34'34 
41-30 

I5-95 


per cent. 
28-83 
29-64 
28-16 

32*55 
31-10 
28-25 
27-16 
19-00 
26-93 
30-67 
27-88 
17*43 

19-00 
44 - o8 


per cent. 


percent. 
0-27 

0*45 
1-24 

0-3I 

0'57 
I- 3 2 

o-*86 
0*27 
i*35 

50 


percent 
3-42 

3*49 

4'22 

3*5i 

4*49 
7- 10 
4-88 
5*oo 
4*42 
4-71 
4*58 
3-40 

4-70 
5-72 


per cent. 
4'8l 
4*26 

4*55 
4-42 
6-68 
5*84 
4-91 

5*55 

4-41 

4*40 


per cent. 
88-49 
89-06 

88-75 
88-76 
86-89 
87*58 
88-70 

87' 76 
88-97 
89-18 


Camembert 


3 - 


.. 


Parmesan .. 


6- 


69 


- 



G 2 



8 4 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 



Dr. Muter has published the following analyses of 
cheese : — * 



Variety. 



Double Gloucester . . 87-006-28 

Stilton :86-20j7'02 

English pream .. .. 190' 01 3*26 

Dutch !87'2o6 -09 

Gruyere 87-3215 '98 

Rochefort 87-006-27 

Camembert .. .. ,87*15 6*09 

Bondon J7' 8 345'95 

American Cheddar .. 189*083-30 

Cheddar .87*665-00 



Si 
II 



229-3 
23I-7 

220 -o 

228-7 
228-0 
229-3 
229-0 
228-0 
220 -2 
227-5 



37-20 
28-60 
63-64 
42-72 
33'20 
21-56 
48-78 

55 -20 
29-70 

33 '40 



802 
o8|i 
0*900 
i'35J2 
i'35'3 
0-7211 
0-360 
0-900 
70,0-902 
60 1*532 



64 
o'75 

0*12 



2*00 

2*22 

0*20< 

9-I04'02 
2 I'58 1*05 
708-543-42 
16:8-643-46 
526-463-16 

16 i '54 i*20 
•30,2*00 1*52 



■ 



x^ccording to this chemist, one gramme of genuine cheese 
should require not less than 220 milligrammes K(OH) for 
saponification, as executed in Koettstorfer's process (see 
p. 71). 

The following results were obtained by Griffiths f from 
the analysis of American cheese, and by Gerber $ from 
the analysis of artificial American cheese : — 



American 
Cheese. 



Lard Cheese. 



Oleomargarine 
Cheese. 



Water 
Fat .. .. 
Caseine, etc. 
Ash .. .. 



per cent. 
26-55 
35-58 
33-85 
3-90 



per cent. 
38*26 
2I*07 

35-55 
5*12 



per cent. 

37*99 
23*70 

34-65 
3*66 



The constituents of cheese are very similar to those of 
milk ; the relations between the soluble and insoluble fatty 

* * Analyst,' Jan. 1885, p. 3. 
f Chem. News, pp. 47, 85 . 
t Dingl.,vol. i. pp. 247,474. 



CHEESE. 85 

acids is much the same as in butter. In cheese, however, 
the milk-sugar is largely decomposed into lactic acid, alco- 
hol, and carbonic acid, during the process of ripening or 
curing employed in its manufacture. 

Another essential change effected by the curing of cheese 
is the partial decomposition of the caseine into ammonia, 
which combines with the unaltered caseine, forming soluble 
ammonium caseates. Other products of the ripening pro- 
cess, also due to the decomposition of the caseine, are tyro- 
sine and leucine (C 6 H 13 N0 2 ). The butter-fats are like- 
wise transformed into the corresponding fatty acids, which 
give rise to the formation of either the ammonia salts, acid 
albuminates, or amines, such as butylamine or amylamine. 

The characteristic odour of many varieties of cheese is 
chiefly owing to the genesis of these latter compounds. 

As with butter, the most important adulteration of cheese 
consists in the addition of foreign fats. Doubtless, the most 
frequent sophistication is the admixture of lard. Lard 
cheese (which is usually sold as " Neufchatel ") is made by 
first preparing an emulsion of lard and skimmed milk (in 
the proportion of one part of the former to two parts of the 
latter). This is subsequently incorporated with skimmed 
milk and butter-milk, the coagulation of the fat being then 
effected in the usual manner. In regard to the production 
of this species of cheese, it is stated that in the 23 factories 
in the State of New York, the product of six months' work- 
ing (ending November, 1 881), was about 800,000 pounds, of 
which the greater proportion was exported. The recent 
(1885) adoption of a New York State brand for " pure cream 
cheese " has had a very good effect, and accomplished much 
in the restriction of the manufacture and sale of the 
spurious article. Another variety of imitation cheese, 
know as " anti-huff cheese," is prepared from skimmed milk 
without the addition of foreign fat, but with the aid of 
various chemical preparations, such as caustic or carbonated 
soda, saltpetre, and borax. The rind of cheese is occasion- 



86 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

ally contaminated with poisonous metallic salts, including 
those of lead, mercury, antimony, arsenic, copper and zinc, 
which are added either for colouring purposes or to prevent 
the attacks of flies and other insects. This form of adul- 
teration is doubtless of rare occurrence. The methods used 
in cheese analysis are much the same as those employed in 
the examination of butter. The fat is determined by ex- 
haustion with ether (or preferably, petroleum naphtha), and 
evaporation, the remaining solids not fat being likewise 
dried and weighed. The difference between the combined 
weight of the fat and the solids not fat, and the amount of 
the sample taken, represents the proportion of water pre- 
sent. Lactic acid, while insoluble in petroleum naphtha, 
is also dissolved by ether, and can be estimated by 
digesting another portion of the sample with water, and 
titrating the filtered liquid with decinormal soda solution. 
Its weight is then to be deducted from the amount of fat 
previously obtained, in case ether was employed in this 
determination. The relative proportions of the soluble and 
insoluble fatty acids contained in cheese possess the same 
significance in indicating the presence of oleomargarine and 
other foreign fats as with butter ; and they are determined 
by the same methods. 

The examination of the colouring matter of cheese can 
be made by first neutralising the Tree lactic acid, separating 
the fat by agitation with water, filtering and drying ; the 
fat is then tested with carbon disulphide and potassium 
hydroxide (see p. 77). 



( 8 7 ) 



FLOUR AND BREAD. 

Wheat {Triticum vulgare) forms the principal bread-stuff 
of civilised nations, and is by far the most important of all 
cereal grasses. It has one or more slender, erect and 
smooth stalks, which, owing to the large proportion of sili- 
ceous matter present, possesses the strength necessary for 
the support of the ears. The grain is imbricated in four rows. 
The following are the averages of the results obtained by 
the analyses of 260 samples of American wheat, made by 
the United States Department of Agriculture, in 1883 : — 

Per cent. 

Water 10-27 

Ash 1-84 

Oil 2-16 

Carbohydrates 71*98 

Fibrin 1 • 80 

Albuminoids 1 1 • 95 

Nitrogen 1-91 

Analyses of the ash of wheat made by the same Depart- 
ment, furnished the following results : — 





Dakota. 


Foreign. 




Winter. 


Spring. 


Insoluble 

Phosphoric acid 

Potassa 

Magnesia 

Lime 

Soda 

Sulphuric acid 

Chlorine 

Ferric oxide 

Undetermined 


Per cent. 

1-44 

47-3I 

30*63 

16-09 

3-36 

1-17 

trace 

» 


Per cent. 
2*11 

46-98 
3I-I6 
11-97 

3*34 
2-25 
0-37 
0*22 
I'3I 
C29 


Per cent. 

1*64 

48-63 

29-99 

I2-09 

2-93 

i'93 
0-48 
0-51 
0-28 
1-52 


Total ash 


100 • 00 
i-88 


IOO "OO 

1-97 


100 • 00 
2-14 



88 FOOD ADULTERATION. 



FLOUR. 

The name flour is usually given to the product obtained 
by grinding wheat and removing the bran, or woody por- 
tion of the grain, by sifting or bolting. Its constituents are 
starch, dextrine, cellulose, and sugar (carbohydrates), the 
nitrogenous compounds albumen, gliadin, mucin, fibrin, 
and cerealin, and fat, mineral substances and water. Upon 
kneading flour with water, and removing the starch and 
soluble matters by repeated washing, an adhesive body 
termed gluten remains behind. This is chiefly composed of 
gliadin, mucin, and fibrin. 

According to Wanklyn,* the general composition of 
flour is : — 

Per cent. 

Water 16*5 

Fat i*5 

Gluten i2*o 

Modified starch 3*5 

Vegetable albumen i*o 

Starch granules 64-8 

Ash 0*7 

The average of numerous analyses of American flour 
examined by the Department of Agriculture gave : — 

Per cent. 

Water 11*67 

Fat 1-25 

Sugar 1*91 

Dextrine 1*79 

Starch 7172 

Soluble albuminoids 2*80 

Insoluble „ 7*90 

Total „ 10*70 

Ash 0-54 

The composition of the ash of flour from Minnesota 

wheat (1883), is as follows :— 

Per cent. 

Insoluble 0-98 

Phosphoric acid 49*63 

Potassa 3i'54 

Magnesia 9*05 

Lime 5*87 

Soda 2-93 



* ( 



Bread Analysis.' 



FLOUR AND BREAD. 89 



Analysis of Flour. 

The following are the determinations generally required 
in the proximate analysis of flour : — 

Water. — Two or three grammes of the sample are 
weighed in a tared platinum dish, and heated in an air 
bath, until constant weight is obtained. The proportion of 
water should not exceed 17 per cent. 

Starch. — A small amount of the flour is placed in a flask, 
connected with an ascending Liebig's condenser, and boiled 
for several hours with water slightly acidulated with 
sulphuric acid. Any remaining excess of acid is then 
neutralised with sodium hydroxide ; the solution is con- 
siderably diluted, and the glucose formed, estimated by 
means of Fehling's solution (see p. in). 100 parts of 
glucose represent 90 parts of starch. 

Fat. — The inconsiderable proportion of fat in flour is 
best determined by exhausting the dried sample with ether 
and evaporating the solution. 

Gluten (albuminoids). — As previously stated, gluten is 
separated by kneading the flour and repeated washing with 
water. After the removal of the amylaceous and soluble 
ingredients, the residue is carefully dried and weighed. A 
far more accurate method is to make a combustion of a 
small portion of the flour with cupric oxide, and de- 
termine the quantity of nitrogen obtained, the percentage 
of which, multiplied by 6*33, gives the percentage of 
gluten.* The proportion of gluten in flour ranges from 
about 8 to 18 per cent. From 10 to 12 per cent, is deemed 
necessary in order to make good bread, and, in England, 

* Wanklyn applies his ammonia process (see p. 205), to the estima- 
tion of albuminoids in vegetable substances. In this manner he 
obtained the following percentages of ammonia from various flours : — 
Rice, 0*62 ; maize and malt, 1 "03 ; wheat and barley, 1 • 10 ; rye, 1 -45 ; 
pea, 2*30. 



90 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

any deficiency in this constituent is remedied by the 
addition of bean or other flour, but in the United States 
this practice is seldom required. 

Substances soluble in cold water. — About five grammes 
of the flour are digested with 250 c.c. of cold water, and the 
solution filtered, and evaporated to dryness. Good flour 
is stated to yield 4 * 7 per cent, of extract when treated in 
this manner, the soluble matters consisting of sugar, gum, 
dextrine, vegetable albumen, and potassium phosphate. 
The latter salt, which constitutes about 0*4 per cent, of 
the extract, should form the only mineral matter present. 

The Ash. — The ash of flour is determined in the usual 
manner, by ignition in a platinum dish. It varies in 
amount from o * 3 to o * 8 per cent., and should never exceed 
a proportion of 1 ■ 5 per cent. 

When of good quality, wheaten flour is perfectly white, 
or has only a faint tinge of yellow. It should be free from 
bran, and must not show red, grey, or black specks, nor 
possess a disagreeable odour. It should also exhibit a 
neutral reaction and a decided cohesiveness, acquiring a 
peculiar soft and cushion-like condition when slightly com- 
pressed. Formerly, wheaten flour was mixed with various 
foreign meals, such as rye, corn, barley, peas, beans, rice, 
linseed, buckwheat, and potato starch ; but at present this 
form of adulteration is probably but rarely resorted to, at 
least in the United States. The presence of mildew, 
darnel, ergot, and other parasites of the grain, constitutes 
an occasional contamination of flour. The most frequent 
admixture consists, however, in the addition of alum, which, 
although more extensively used in bread, is also employed 
in order to disguise the presence of damaged flour in 
mixtures, or to improve the appearance of an inferior 
grade ; its addition to a damaged article serves to arrest 
the decomposition of the gluten, thereby preventing the 
flour from acquiring a dark colour, and disagreeable taste 
and odour. 



FLOUR AND BREAD. 9 1 

It has recently been stated that in flour which has been 
kept for a long time in sacks, a transformation of the 
gluten sometimes occurs, resulting in the production of a 
poisonous alkaloid. This body may be separated by 
evaporating the ethereal extract of the flour to dryness, and 
treating the residue with water. The presence of the 
alkaloid in the filtered aqueous solution is recognised by 
means of potassium ferrocyanide. The presence of an 
excessive proportion of moisture is doubtless instrumental 
in the formation of toxic alkaloids or fungi in old flour 
and bread. 

Pure wheaten flour is coloured yellow when treated with 
ammonium hydroxide, whereas corn meal assumes a pale 
brown colour, and the meals prepared from peas, beans, 
etc., become dark brown in colour when tested in this 
way. Nitric acid imparts an orange-yellow colour to 
wheaten flour, but fails to change the colour of potato- 
starch, with which it forms a stiff and tenacious paste. 

Potato-starch is readily detected by examining a thin 
layer of the sample on a slide under the microscope, and 
adding a dilute solution of potassium hydroxide, which, 
while not affecting the wheaten starch, causes the potato- 
starch granules to swell up very considerably. Leguminous 
starches, such as peas, etc., contain approximately 2*5 
per cent, of mineral matter ; in pure flour, the average 
proportion of ash is only about 0*7 per cent., and this 
difference is sometimes useful in the detection of an 
admixture of the former. 

The external envelope of the granules of potato-starch 
offers far less resistance when triturated in a mortar than 
that of wheat, and upon this fact a simple test for their 
detection is founded. It is executed by rubbing up a 
mixture consisting of equal parts of the sample and sand 
with water, diluting and filtering the paste formed, and then 
adding to it a solution of 1 part of iodine in 20 parts of 
water. In the absence of potato-starch, an evanescent pink 



92 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

colour is produced ; in case it is present, the colour obtained 
is dark purple, which in time also disappears. 

Among the methods which have been suggested for the 
detection of such accidental impurities as darnel, ergot, and 
mildew, are the following : — If pure flour is digested for 
some time with dilute alcohol, the latter either remains 
quite clear or it acquires a very light straw-colour ; with flour 
contaminated with darnel, the alcohol shows a decided 
greenish tint, and possesses an acrid and disagreeable taste. 
In case the alcohol used is acidulated with about 5 per 
cent, of hydrochloric acid, the extract obtained exhibits 
a purple-red colour with flour containing mildew, and a 
blood-red colour with flour containing ergot. When flour 
contaminated with ergot or other moulds, is treated with a 
dilute solution of aniline violet, the dye is almost wholly 
absorbed by the damaged granules, which are thus rendered 
more noticeable in the microscopic examination. 

The following test is often used for the detection of alum 
in flour : — A small quantity of the suspected sample is made 
into a paste with a little water and mixed with a few drops 
of an alcoholic tincture of logwood ; a little ammonium 
carbonate solution is then added. In the presence of alum, 
a lavender-blue coloured lake is formed, which often be- 
comes more apparent upon allowing the mixture to remain 
at rest for a few hours. The production of a brown or pink 
coloration is an indication of the absence of alum. A 
modification of this test, proposed by Blyth, consists in 
immersing for several hours in the cold aqueous extract of 
the flour a strip of gelatine, with which the alum combines ; 
the gelatine is subsequently submitted to the action of the 
logwood tincture and ammonium carbonate as above. 

For the quantitative estimation of alum in flour, the 
following processes are usually employed : — A considerable 
quantity of the sample is incinerated in a platinum dish, 
the ash is boiled with dilute hydrochloric acid and the 
solution filtered. The filtrate is next boiled and added to 



FLOUR AND BREAD. 93 

a concentrated solution of pure sodium hydroxide, the 
mixture being again boiled and afterwards filtered hot. A 
little sodium diphosphate is now added to the filtrate 
which is then slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, 
and finally made barely alkaline by addition of ammonium 
hydroxide. The resulting precipitate, which, in the pre- 
sence of alum, consists of aluminium phosphate, is brought 
upon a filter, well washed, and then weighed. 

Another method, which is a modification of that of Dupre, 
is as follows : — The ash obtained by the calcination of the 
flour (or bread), is fused, together with four times its weight 
of pure mixed sodium and potassium carbonates, the fused 
mass treated with hydrochloric acid, the solution evaporated 
to dryness and the separated silica collected and weighed. 
A few drops of sodium phosphate solution are added to 
the filtrate from the silica, then ammonium hydroxide in 
excess, by which the calcium, magnesium, ferric and 
aluminium phosphates are precipitated. The two latter are 
next separated by boiling the liquid with an excess of 
acetic acid (in which they are insoluble), and brought upon 
a filter, washed, dried, and weighed. The iron sometimes 
accompanying the precipitate of aluminium phosphate, can 
be determined by reduction with zinc and titration with 
potassium permanganate. If the presence of alum is indi- 
cated by the logwood test, and it is quantitatively deter- 
mined by either of the preceding methods, it has been 
suggested that an allowance be made for the small pro- 
portion of aluminium silicate occasionally found in un- 
adulterated flour or bread, and a deduction from the total 
alum present of one part of alum for every part of silica 
obtained is considered proper. The weight of aluminium 
phosphate found, multiplied by 3*873, or by 3 • 702, gives 
respectively the corresponding amounts of potash-alum or 
ammonia-alum contained in the sample examined. 



94 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

BREAD. 

Bread is usually prepared by mixing flour with water, 
kneading it into a uniform dough, submitting it to a process 
of " raising," either by means of a ferment or by the direct 
incorporation of carbonic acid gas, and finally baking the 
resulting mass. 

Unleavened bread, however, is made by simply knead- 
ing flour with water, with the addition of a little salt, and 
baking. The oatcake of the Scotch, the passover bread of 
the Israelites, and the corncakes of the Southern States 
are the best known varieties of unleavened bread. 

The porosity peculiar to raised bread is caused by the 
generation of a gas, either previous to, or during the process 
of baking. In former times (and to some extent at 
present, notably in Paris), fermented bread was made by 
the use of leaven, which is dough in a state of incipient 
decomposition ; but in this country, the common agent 
employed in raising bread is yeast, which consists of 
minute vegetable cells (Torula cerevisice) forming either 
the froth or deposit of fermenting worts. 

By the action of these ferments, the gluten of the flour 
first undergoes a modification and enters into a peculiar 
combination with the starch-granules, which become more 
or less ruptured ; the soluble albumen is rendered insoluble, 
and the starch is transformed, first into sugar, then into 
carbonic acid and alcohol. These changes are perfectly 
analogous to those which occur in the fermentation of the 
wort in the preparation of fermented liquors. 

Other and minor decompositions likewise occur, such as 
the partial conversion of the starch into dextrine, the sugar 
into lactic acid, and the alcohol into acetic acid, but the 
most essential change is the production of alcohol and 
carbonic acid. The alcohol formed is mainly volatilised, 
although an average proportion of 0*3 per cent, of this 
compound has been found in samples of fresh bread. The 



FLOUR AND BREAD. 95 

escape of the carbonic acid is retarded by the gluten, and 
to its expansion is due the porous or spongy appearance of 
well-made bread. 

Of late years, artificial substitutes for the fermentation 
process in the production of porous bread have been exten- 
sively employed. By the use of these agents, the liberation 
of carbonic acid in the dough is accomplished and a slight 
gain of weight is effected, as none of the original ingredients 
of the flour are lost by fermentation. 

"Aerated bread" is made by kneading the flour under 
pressure with water highly charged with carbonic acid 
gas, which, upon the removal of the pressure, expands, and 
gives porosity to the bread. The use of " baking powders " 
effects the same result in a more convenient manner, and 
is largely practised in families. These compounds generally 
consist of sodium bicarbonate (sometimes partially replaced 
by the corresponding ammonia salt), and tartaric acid, or 
potassium bitartrate, together with rice or other flour. A 
more commendable preparation is a mixture of sodium 
bicarbonate with potassium or calcium acid phosphates, 
the use of which is claimed to restore to the bread the 
phosphates lost by the removal of the bran from the flour. 
Baking powders are often mixed in the dry state with 
flour, and the produce, which is known under the name of 
" self-raising flour," only requires to be kneaded with water 
and baked to form porous bread. However great the 
convenience attending the use of these compounds, they 
are often open to the objection that their decomposition 
gives rise to the formation of aperient salts, e.g. sodium 
tartrate, and that they are very frequently contaminated 
with alum. 

As a result of the chemical changes which take place in 
the fermentation of the flour and the subsequent applica- 
tion of heat, the composition of bread differs materially 
from that of the grain from which it is prepared. As 
already mentioned, the soluble albuminoids are rendered 



9 6 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 



insoluble, and the starch is partially transformed into sugar 
(maltose). The unconverted starch is modified in its phy- 
sical condition, the ruptured granules being far more readily 
acted upon by the digestive fluids than before. The pro- 
portion of soluble carbohydrates is naturally augmented in 
bread. The amount of ash is also somewhat increased, 
chiefly owing to the addition of salt, but it should not 
exceed a proportion of 2 per cent. The quantity of water 
in bread varies considerably. Wanklyn fixes 34 per cent, 
as the standard ; greater proportions have, however, been 
frequently found. In ten samples of apparently normal 
bread, examined by E. S. Wood, Analyst to the Massa- 
chusetts State Board of Health, the amounts of moisture 
contained varied from 34 to 44 per cent. The quantity of 
water decreases very rapidly upon exposure to the air. 
Thus, Clifford Richardson * found that bread which showed 
36 per cent, of moisture when freshly baked, contained 
but 5 • 86 per cent, after drying for two weeks. Stale bread 
would seem to contain water in a peculiar molecular con- 
dition, and, as is well known, upon heating (" toasting "), it 
reassumes the porous state. 

According to analyses collected by Konig,f the mean 
composition of bread is as follows : — 





1 


O D 




u 

a 
ho 


4> a 

<£ M 

a, 2 

>.t! 

la 


O 


■9 

< 


Dry 
Substances. 




fc 


4> 
hi 


Fine wheat bread 
Coarse wheat bread . . 

Rye bread 

Pumpernickel .. 


per 
cent. 

3I'5I 
40-45 

42-27 

43*42 


per 
cent. 

7-06 
6-15 
6-n 
7*59 


per 
cent. 
C46 
0'44 

o'43 
i'5i 


per 
cent. 
4*02 

2-08 

2-3I 

3*25 


per 
cent. 
52^6 
49-04 
46-94 
41-87 


per 
cent. 
C32 
0*62 
0-49 
0-94 


per 
cent. 
1-09 
I '22 
1-46 
1-42 


per 
cent. 

i'75 
1-65 
1*69 
2*15 


per 
cent. 

87-79 
85-84 
85-3I 
79-74 



* 'An Investigation of the Composition of American Wheat and 
Corn.' United States Department of Agriculture, 1883. 
f ' Die Menschlichen Nahrungs- und Genussmittel/ p. 420. Berlin, 



FLOUR AND BREAD. 97 

Clifford Richardson gives the following results of the 
analysis of ordinary family loaf-bread : — 

Per cent. 

Water 37'3o 

Soluble albuminoids 1*19 

Insoluble „ 6*85 

Fat o'6o 

Sugar 2' 16 

Dextrine 2-85 

Starch 47 '03 

Fibre 0-85 

Ash 1*17 

100 ' 00 

Nitrogen 1*29 

Total albuminoids 8*04 

The analysis of bread is conducted essentially in the 
same manner as that of flour. Under ordinary circum- 
stances, the determinations required are limited to an 
estimation of the moisture contained in the crumb, the 
amount of the ash, and special tests for the presence of 
alum and copper salts. Owing to the broken condition of 
the starch granules in bread, their identification by the 
microscope is usually rendered exceedingly difficult. The 
logwood test for alum in bread is applied by Bell as 
follows : — About 10 grammes of the crumb are immersed 
in a little water containing 5 c.c. each of the freshly pre- 
pared logwood tincture and solution of ammonium car- 
bonate for about five minutes, after which the liquid is 
decanted, and the bread dried at a gentle heat. In the 
presence of alum the bread will acquire the characteristic 
lavender tint mentioned under Flour. It should be added, 
that salts of magnesia also produce a lavender lake with 
alum ; but this fact does not affect the usefulness of the 
process as a preliminary test to the quantitative determina- 
tion of the mineral impurities present in the sample under 
examination. The quantitative examination of alum in 
bread is made by one of the methods described on p. 93. 
Bread, free from alum, will sometimes yield 0*013 per cent. 

H 



98 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

of aluminium phosphate, and this amount should therefore 
be deducted from the weight of the precipitate obtained. 

The average of the results obtained by Dr. Edward G. 
Love, New York State Board of Health, from the examina- 
tion of the crumb of ten samples of the cheaper varieties 
of wheaten bread were as follows : — 

Per cent. 

Water 42*80 

Total ash 1*0066 

Silica and sand 0*0056 

Aluminium (and ferric) phosphates 0*0053 

That the addition of alum to bread is prevalent seems 
to admit of little doubt. The British Public Analysts, 
in 1879, tested 1287 samples of bread, of which 95 (or 
7*3 per cent.) contained alum. Of 18 samples examined, 
in 1880, in the city of Washington, 8 were adulterated 
with the salt. The question of the sanitary effects pro- 
duced by the use of alumed bread is one which has given 
rise to very extended discussion. According to some 
authorities, the conversion of alum into an insoluble salt 
by the fermentation process, which takes place in bread- 
making, is regarded as a proof that it remains inert, and is 
consequently harmless in its effects. Others contend that 
its action as a preventive of excessive fermentation is at 
the expense of valuable nutritious constituents of the flour, 
and that its combination with the phosphates present in 
the grain results in the formation of an insoluble salt which 
tends to retard digestion. Experiments have been made 
by J. West Knights, on the comparative action of artificial 
gastric juice upon pure and alumed bread, which appa- 
rently support this latter view. 

Another objection to the use of alum is that it is fre- 
quently employed for the purpose of disguising the bad 
quality of damaged and inferior grades of flour. The 
presence of copper salts in bread is of rare occurrence. 
Their detection is accomplished by treating a portion of 



FLOUR AND BREAD. 99 

the crumb with a dilute solution of potassium ferrocyanide 
acidulated with acetic acid, which, in presence of copper, 
will impart a reddish-brown colour to the bread. If con- 
tained in any appreciable proportion, it can be extracted 
from the ash obtained by the incineration of the bread, and 
deposited upon the interior of a weighed platinum capsule 
by the electrolytic method. 

Starch (C 6 H 10 O 5 ). — Starch, which enters so largely into 
the composition of cereals, is a carbo-hydrate, i. e. hydrogen 
and oxygen are contained in the proportions necessary 
to form water. In this respect, it is identical with woody 
fibre, cellulose, and dextrine. 

The well-known dark-blue colour produced upon the 
addition of a solution of iodine to starch-paste forms 
the usual qualitative test for its presence. This coloration 
is discharged by alkalies and by a solution of sulphurous 
acid. The quantitative estimation of starch in mixtures is 
best effected by heating the dry substance in a closed 
tube for 24 hours, together with a dilute hot alcoholic 
solution of potassium hydroxide. The hot liquid is next 
filtered, the residue washed with alcohol, and the filtrate 
heated with 2 per cent, solution of hydrochloric acid until it 
ceases to show the blue coloration when tested with iodine. 
It is then rendered alkaline, and the proportion of starch 
originally present, calculated from the amount of sugar 
formed, as determined by Fehling's solution. Although 
identical in chemical composition, the various forms of 
starch met with in the vegetable kingdom vary in size and 
exhibit characteristic differences in the appearance of the 
granules. The following are measurements of several 
varieties of starch granules : — 

Millimetre. Millimetre. 



Wheat -0500 

Rye -0310 

Rice "0220 



Corn '0300 

Bean '0631 

Potato -1850 



The larger granules of potato starch, when suspended 

H 2 



IOO FOOD ADULTERATION. 

in water, subside more rapidly than those of wheat 
starch ; they are also far more readily ruptured. 

The identification of the various starches is accomplished 
by means of the microscope. Starch possesses an orga- 
nised structure which, fortunately, differs in different plants. 
Besides varying in size, the granules develope in a different 
manner and form from centres of growth, and therefore 
exhibit characteristic conditions and positions. These 
distinctions, together with their effect upon polarised light, 
are of great utility in the determination of the source of 
any particular starch. For this purpose, it is necessary to 
become familiar with the distinctive microscopical appear- 
ance of each individual starch. A collection of those most 
usually met with should be made, and, after careful study, 
preserved in a dried state for comparative purposes. 
Polarised light is a very useful adjunct in the examination 
of starch granules. In the microscopical investigation, a 
minute portion of the sample is placed upon the glass slide 
and well moistened with a solution of I part glycerine in 
2 parts of water ; it is then protected by a thin glass cover, 
which is put on with gentle pressure. The appearance of 
various starches, under polarised light, is seen in Plate IX., 
where the cross lies at the hilum or nucleus of the granule 
and the form and relative size is visible in outline. This 
plate, and Plates VII. and XII. are copied, with permission, 
from Bulletin No. 1 1 of the Chemical Division of the 
U.S. Department of Agriculture. The original negatives 
(made by Clifford Richardson) were used, but the auto- 
types are presented in a somewhat modified form. 



PLATE IX. 




* ** 01 tj 



Bean X 145. Pea X 145. 

STARCHES. 



( ioi ) 



BAKERS' CHEMICALS. 

The substances employed for the artificial production of 
porosity in bread, as already mentioned, are sodium 
bicarbonate (now termed " saleratus "), potassium bitartrate, 
tartaric acid, and calcium diphosphate, the various mixtures 
of these compounds being known as baking powders. Some 
of the above chemicals are not always used in the pure 
state, and, in addition to this source of contamination, 
baking powders are often excessively diluted with flour or 
starch, and seriously adulterated with alum. 

The sodium bicarbonate employed is generally a fairly 
pure article. Common grades of the salt contain a little 
sodium chloride, and in some cases as much as 2 per cent. 
of the corresponding sulphate ; it may also prove to be 
somewhat deficient in the proportion of carbonic acid pre- 
sent. Cream of tartar (potassium bitartrate), is far more 
liable to adulteration. A certain quantity of calcium 
tartrate is often found in the commercial article, originating 
from its method of manufacture, and amounting, on the 
average, from 6 to 7 per cent. The salt is, moreover, some- 
times intentionally mixed with alum, starch, tartaric acid, 
gypsum, chalk and terra alba. 

Occasionally so-called cream of tartar has been found 
to be wholly composed of starch and calcium diphosphate. 
In the examination for calcium tartrate and sulphate, a 
quantitative determination of the total lime and sulphuric 
acid is made. The quantity of sulphuric acid obtained is 
calculated to gypsum, any excess of lime left being re- 
turned as tartrate. The ash in pure cream of tartar should 
amount to 36*79 per cent, while that of calcium tartrate 



102 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

is only 21 -54 per cent. Naturally, the addition of flour or 
starch would materially decrease the proportion of ash. The 
presence of these latter adulterants is recognised by means 
of the microscope, and by testing the sample with iodine 
solution. It is generally required that cream of tartar 
should contain at least 90 per cent, of potassium bitartrate. 

Baking powders. — The usual composition of baking 
powders has already been stated. They all contain sodium 
bicarbonate, but differ in the acid ingredient present, 
which may consist of cream of tartar, tartaric acid, calcium 
diphosphate, or alum. In order to remedy the tendency 
to deterioration which exists in powders entirely composed 
of the above salts, it is the practice to add a considerable 
amount of " filling " (corn-starch, flour, etc.). The quantity of 
filling employed for this purpose varies from 20 to 60 per 
cent., but is as a rule, greater than is really necessary. A 
small proportion of the sodium salt is often replaced by 
ammonium sesquicarbonate. Alum is a more objection- 
able constituent of many preparations, and it should be con- 
sidered an adulteration. The practical value of baking 
powder is chiefly dependent upon the quantity of carbonic 
acid it liberates when decomposed, and this is affected by the 
strength of the acid salt and the amount of " filling " 
used. The most common varieties of baking powders 
are : — 

(a) Sodium bicarbonate and cream of tartar \ either pure or 
mixed with starch. In testing this class of powders, it is 
usual to determine the excessive alkalinity remaining 
after the decomposition with water, by means of deci- 
normal acid ; this is put down as bicarbonate present in 
excess. The proportions of sodium bicarbonate and cream 
of tartar are calculated from the alkaline strength of the 
ash, minus the excessive alkalinity found. 

Impurities originating from the cream of tartar employed 
are estimated as previously described ; and the amount of 
starch contained is determined by the usual methods. In 



BAKERS CHEMICALS. IO3 

some preparations, tartaric acid is substituted for cream of 
tartar. 

The following proportions represent the composition of a 
baking powder of good quality : — 

Parts. 

Cream of tartar 30 

Sodium bicarbonate 15 

Flour 5 

(b) Sodium bicarbonate and calcium diphosphate. — Calcium 
sulphate occurs as an impurity in the commercial phosphate 
and is therefore liable to be met with in phosphate powders. 
In addition to phosphoric acid, lime, etc., a determination 
of sulphuric acid and chlorine should be made. 

(c) Sodium bicarbonate and alum. — These constitute the 
most reprehensible forms of baking powder. The sanitary 
effects of alum have been referred to under Flour. It 
may be present either as potash or ammonia alum. The 
following is a fair example of an alum powder : — 

Per cent. 

Alum 26*45 

Sodium bicarbonate 24'i7 

Ammonium sesquicarbonate .. .. 2*31 

Cream of tartar None 

Starch 47*07 

From an exhaustive investigation of baking powders made 
by Dr. Henry A. Mott, it was found that about 50 per 
cent, of these preparations were impure, alum being the 
chief admixture. Of 280 samples of cream of tartar lately 
examined by various American Health Boards, 100 were 
adulterated ; of 95 baking powders tested, 16 were 
adulterated. 



104 food adulteration. 



SUGAR. 

The sugars of commerce may be conveniently classified 
into two varieties, viz., sucrose (cane sugar or saccharose) 
and dextrose (grape sugar or glucose). The former, which 
is the kind almost exclusively employed for domestic uses, 
is chiefly obtained from the sugar cane of the West Indies 
and American Southern States (Sacckarum officinarum\ 
and, in continental Europe, from the sugar beet (Beta 
vulgaris). A comparatively small quantity is manufactured 
in the United States from the sugar maple (Acer saccha- 
rinum), and from sorghum (Sorghum saccharatus). 

Cane Sugar (C u H 22 O n ). — Among thei more important 
chemical properties of cane sugar are the following: — It 
dissolves in about one-third its weight of cold water — much 
more readily in hot water — and is insoluble in cold absolute 
alcohol. From a concentrated aqueous solution it is 
deposited in monoclinic prisms, which possess a specific 
gravity of 1*580. Cane sugar is characterised by its 
property of rotating the plane of a ray of polarised light to 
the right ; the rotary power is 66° • 6. Upon heating its 
solution with dilute mineral acids, it is converted into a 
mixture termed "invert sugar," which consists of equal 
parts of dextrose and levulose. The former turns the plane 
of polarised light to the right, the latter to the left ; but 
owing to the stronger rotation exerted by the levulose, the 
combined rotary effect of invert sugar is to the left, i. e. y 
opposite to that possessed by cane sugar. Invert sugar 
exhibits the important property of reducing solutions of 
the salts of copper, which is not possessed by pure cane 
sugar. Cane sugar melts at 160 ; at a higher temperature 



SUGAR. IO5 

(210 ) it is converted into a reddish-brown substance termed 
caramel. When subjected to the action of ferments, cane 
sugar is first transformed into invert sugar, then into alcohol 
and carbonic acid, according to the reactions : — 

(a) C 12 H^ O u + H 2 = 2 C 6 H 12 0. 6 

(b) C 6 H 12 6 = 2 C0 2 + 2 C 2 H 6 0. 

The varieties of cane sugar usually met with in commerce 
are the following : — 

1. Loaf sugar, consisting either of irregular fragments, 
or (more often) of cut cubes. 

2. Granulated sugar. 

3. Soft white sugar. 

4. Brown sugar, varying in colour from cream-yellow to 
reddish-brown. 

Molasses is a solution of sugar, containing invert sugar, 
gummy matters, caramel, etc., which forms the mother- 
liquor remaining after the crystallisation of raw cane sugar ; 
the name " syrup " being commonly applied to the residual 
liquor obtained in the manufacture of refined sugar. 

Dextrose (C 6 H 12 6 ), occurs ready-formed in grape juice, 
and in many sweet fruits, very frequently associated with 
levulose; it is also contained in honey, together with a 
small amount of cane sugar. As already mentioned, it 
constitutes an ingredient of the product obtained by the 
action of acids and ferments upon cane sugar. For com- 
mercial purposes, glucose is prepared by treating grains 
rich in starch, with dilute acids. In France and Germany, 
potatoes are used in its manufacture ; in the United States, 
Indian corn or maize is almost exclusively employed. 
The processes used consist substantially in first separating 
the starch from the grain by soaking, grinding, and strain- 
ing, then boiling it, under pressure, with water containing 
about 3 per cent, of sulphuric acid, neutralising the remain- 
ing acid with chalk, decolorising the solution by means of 
animal charcoal, and concentrating it in vacuum pans. In 



106 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

the United States thirty-two factories are engaged in the 
manufacture of glucose, which consume about 40,000 
bushels of corn . daily, their annual production having an 
estimated value of 10 millions of dollars. In commerce, 
the term grape sugar is applied to the solid product, the 
syrup or liquid form being known as glucose. The chief 
uses of starch sugar and glucose are in the manufacture of 
table syrups, and as a substitute for malt in the brewing of 
beer and ale. Their other most important applications are 
as a substitute for cane sugar in confectionery, and in the 
preparation of fruit jellies ; as an adulterant of cane sugar, 
as an admixture to genuine honey, and as a source for the 
preparation of vinegar. 

Dextrose is soluble in 1 J part of cold water, and is much 
more soluble in hot water. It has a dextro-rotary power 
of 5 6°. When separated from its aqueous solution, it 
forms white and opaque granular masses, but from an 
alcoholic solution, it is obtained in well-defined, micro- 
scopic needles, which fuse at 146 . Two parts of glucose 
have about the same sweetening effect as one part of cane 
sugar.* It does not become coloured when mixed with 
cold concentrated sulphuric acid, which distinguishes it 
from sucrose ; on the other hand, its solution is coloured 
dark-brown if boiled with potassium hydroxide, another 
distinction from cane sugar. Dextrose is capable of 
directly undergoing vinous fermentation, and, like invert 
sugar, it possesses the property of reducing alkaline 
solutions of copper salts, especially upon the application of 
heat. 

* It is of interest in this connection to note the recent discovery of 

CO 

a coal-tar derivative, benzoyle sulphonic imide, C 6 H 4 <^q>NH, 

commercially known as "saccharine." This body possesses about 
230 times the sweetening power of cane sugar. It bears, however, no 
near chemical relation to the sugars, which, for the greater part, con- 
stitute hexatomic alcohols. See Amer. Chem. Jour., i. p. 170, and 
vol. ii. p. 181 ; also, Jour. Soc. Chem. Indus., No. 2, vol. vi. p. 75. 



SUGAR. I07 

The chief commercial varieties of American glucose 
are the following : — 

1. Glucose : Per cent. Glucose. 

" Crystal H," containing .... 40 

" Crystal B" 45 

"Crystal A" 50 

2. Grape Sugar : 

" Brewers' grape 7Q-75 

"A" or "Solid grape" .. .. 75"8o 
" Grained " or " Granulated grape " 80-85 

Maltose and levulose are isomers of dextrose. The former 
is prepared by the action of malt or diastase upon starch. 
It has a dextro-rotary power of 1 50 , and its property of 
reducing copper salts is only about 60 per cent, of that of 
dextrose. It is converted into the latter compound upon 
boiling with dilute sulphuric acid. Levulose, as previously 
stated, is formed, together with dextrose, from cane sugar 
by treatment with dilute acids or with ferments. It turns 
the plane of a ray of polarised light to the left, its rotary 
power varying considerably at different temperatures. 

Lactose, or milk sugar, has already been referred to 
under the head of Milk. It is isomeric with cane sugar, 
possesses a dextro-rotary power (58°*2), and undergoes 
fermentation when mixed with yeast, and reduces alkaline 
copper solutions, but in a different degree from glucose. 

Many of the substances frequently enumerated as being 
used to adulterate sugar are at present very seldom 
employed. The usual list includes " glucose " (often mean- 
ing invert sugar), sand, flour, chalk, terra alba, etc. Loaf 
sugar is almost invariably pure, although its colour is some- 
times improved by the addition of small proportions of 
various blue pigments, such as ultramarine, indigo, and 
Prussian blue. The presence of ultramarine was detected 
in about 73 per cent, of the samples of granulated sugar 
tested in 1 88 1 by the New York State Board of Health. 
Tin salts * are also occasionally employed in the bleach- 

* Of 41 samples of molassan, tested in Massachusetts in 1885, 
1 2 contained tin chloride. 



108 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

ing of sugar and syrups. Granulated sugar is asserted to 
be sometimes mixed with grape sugar, and powdered sugar 
has been found adulterated with flour and terra alba ; but 
the varieties which are most exposed to admixture are the 
low grades of yellow and brown sugar, in which, however, 
several per cent, of invert sugar are normally present. 
Sand, gravel, and mites form a rather common contamina- 
tion of raw sugar. From the year 1876 to 188 1, 310 
samples of commercial sugar were examined by the public 
health authorities of Canada, of which number 24 were 
reported as containing glucose, and 11 as of doubtful 
purity. Of 38 samples of brown sugar recently analysed 
by Dr. Charles Smart, of the National Board of Health, 
9 were adulterated with glucose. From the investigations 
of A. L. Colby, Analyst to the New York State Board of 
Health, it was found that of the 116 samples examined, 
the white sugars were practically pure ; whereas, of 67 
samples of brown sugar, 4 contained glucose. Of 16 
specimens of brown sugar, tested by a commission ap- 
pointed by the National Academy of Sciences in 1883, 4 
contained about 30 per cent, of this body.* Many varieties 
of sugar-house syrups, and the various forms of confection- 
ery, are very extensively adulterated with artificial glucose. 
The average sugar-house syrup has the following compo- 
sition :— 

Per cent. 

Water i. .. 16 

Crystallisable sugar 36 

Invert sugar 34 

Gum, pectose, etc 10 

Ash 4 

Dr. W. H. Pitt, in the Second Annual Report of the New 

* The average composition of over 100,000 samples of raw cane 
sugar (mostly Cuban) tested in the United States Laboratory during 
the past five years, has been as follows : — 

Per cent. 

Moisture 3*0 

Ash 1*5 

Polarisation 90 



SUGAR. IO9 

York State Board of Health, gives the following analysis 
of grocers' mixed glucose syrup, and of confectioners' 
glucose : — 

American Grape Sugar Co.'s Syrup. 

Per cent. 

Ash 0*820 

Water 18-857 

Dextrine 34*667 

Cane syrup 7*805 

Glucose 37*851 

100 ' 000 
Confectioners' Glucose. 

Per cent. 

Ash o'43i 

Water 15-762 

Dextrine 41-614 

Glucose 42*193 

100 ' 000 



It is stated that a large proportion of the American 
maple syrup and maple sugar found on the market, con- 
sists of raw sugar, flavoured with the essential oil of hickory- 
bark, for the manufacture of which letters patent have been 
granted. 

Analysis of Sugar. — The examination of sugar is ordi- 
narily confined to the estimation of the water, ash, and 
determination of the nature of the organic matters present. 
The proportion of water contained in a sample is found by 
drying it for about two hours in an air-bath, at a tempera- 
ture of 1 10°. Moist and syrupy sugars, such as muscovadoes, 
are advantageously mixed with a known weight of ignited 
sand before drying. The ash is determined either by 
directly incinerating a few grammes of the sugar in a tared 
platinum capsule, or by accelerating the process of combus- 
tion by first moistening the sample with a little sulphuric 
acid. In this case the bases will naturally be converted 
into sulphates, and a deduction of one-tenth is usually made 
from the results so obtained, in order to reduce it to terms 



IIO FOOD ADULTERATION. 

of the corresponding carbonates. The proportion of ash 
in raw cane sugar varies somewhat, but it should not much 
exceed I ' 5 per cent Its average composition, as given by 
Monier, is as follows : — , 

Calcic carbonate 49*00 

Potassium carbonate 16*50 

Sodium and potassium sulphates .. 16*00 

Sodium chloride 9 • 00 

Alumina and silica 9*50 

100 • 00 



Insoluble mineral adulterants are readily separated by 
dissolving a rather considerable amount of the sample in 
water and filtering. In this manner the presence of sand, 
terra alba, and foreign pigments may be recognised. 

The determination of the character of the organic consti- 
tuents of commercial sugars is effected, either by chemical 
or by physical tests, and, in some instances, by a combina- 
tion of these methods. The presence of such adulterants, as 
flour or starch, is very easily detected upon a microscopic 
examination of the suspected sample. 

If cane sugar, containing grape sugar, is boiled with 
water, to which about 2 per cent, of potassium hydroxide 
has been added, the solution acquires a brown colour. 

Upon mixing a solution of pure cane sugar with a solu- 
tion of cupric sulphate, adding an excess of potassium 
hydroxide, and boiling, only a slight precipitation of red 
cupric oxide takes place. Under the same conditions, 
grape sugar at once produces a copious green precipitate, 
which ultimately changes to red, the supernatant fluid be- 
coming nearly or quite colourless. A very good method 
for the quantitative estimation of grape sugar when 
mechanically mixed with cane sugar, is that of P. Casa- 
major. It is executed by first preparing a saturated solu- 
tion of grape sugar in methylic alcohol. The sample to be 
tested is thoroughly dried, and then well agitated with the 
methylic alcohol solution, in which all cane sugar will dis- 



SUGAR. I I I 

solve ; any grape sugar present remains behind, and upon 
allowing the mixture to remain at rest for a short time, 
forms a deposit which is again treated with the grape sugar 
solution, and then collected upon a tared filter, washed 
with absolute methylic alcohol, and weighed. Glucose and 
invert sugar are usually quantitatively determined by 
means of Fehling's solution. 

As this preparation is liable to decompose upon keeping, 
it is advisable to first prepare cupric sulphate solution by 
dissolving exactly 34,640 grammes of the salt in 500 c.c. of 
distilled water, and then make up the Rochelle salt solution 
by dissolving 68 grammes of sodium hydroxide, and 173 
grammes of Rochelle salt in 500 c.c. of water, the solutions 
being kept separate. When required for use, 5 c.c. each of 
the copper and Rochelle solutions (corresponding to 10 c.c. 
of Fehling's solution) are introduced into a narrow beaker, 
or a porcelain evaporating dish, a little water is added, and 
the liquid brought to the boiling point. The sugar solution 
under examination should not contain over o * 5 per cent, 
of glucose. It is cautiously added to the hot Fehling's 
solution from a burette until the fluid loses its blue colour 
(see p. 37). The number of c.c. required to completely 
reduce 10 c.c. of Fehling's solution, represents 0*05 
gramme of grape sugar. The foregoing volumetric 
method is sometimes applied gravimetrically by adding a 
slight excess of Fehling's solution to the sugar solution, 
collecting the precipitated cupric oxide upon a filter and 
weighing, after oxidation with a few drops of nitric acid ; 
or, it may be dissolved, and the copper contained deposited 
by electrolysis, in which case the weight of copper ob- 
tained, multiplied by o* 538, gives the equivalent amount of 
glucose. The proportion of cane sugar in a sample of raw 
sugar can be determined by first directly estimating the 
proportion of invert sugar contained by means of Fehling's 
solution, as just described. The cane sugar present is then 
inverted by dissolving one gramme of the sample in about 



112 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

IOO c.c. of water, adding I c.c. of strong sulphuric acid, and 
heating the solution in the water-bath for 30 minutes, the 
water lost by evaporation being from time to time replaced. 
The free acid is next neutralised by a little sodium car- 
bonate, its volume made up to 200 c.c, and the invert sugar 
now contained estimated by Fehling's solution. The differ- 
ence in the two determinations represents the glucose 
formed by the conversion of the cane sugar; 100 parts of 
the glucose so produced is equivalent to 95 parts of cane 
sugar. 

Commercial cane sugar is, however, generally estimated by 
the instrument known as the saccharimeter or polariscope. 

In order to convey an intelligent idea of the physical 
laws which govern the practical working of the polariscope, 
it will first be necessary to refer to the subject of the 
polarisation of light. The transformation of ordinary into 
polarised light is best effected either by reflection from a 
glass plate at an angle of about 5 6°, or by what is known 
as double refraction. The former method can be illustrated 
by Fig. 1, Plate X., which represents two tubes, B and C, 
arranged so as to allow the one to be turned round within 
the other. Two flat plates of glass, A and P, blackened at 
the backs, are attached obliquely to the end of each tube at 
an angle of about 5 6°, as represented in the figure. The 
tube B, with its attached plate, A, can be turned round in 
the tube C without changing the inclination of the plate to 
a ray passing along the axis of the tube. If a candle be 
now placed at I, the light will be reflected from the plate P 
through the tube, and, owing to the particular angle of this 
plate, will undergo a certain transformation in its nature, 
or, in other words, become "polarised." So long as the 
plate A retains the position represented in the figure, the 
reflected ray would fall in the same plane as that in which 
the polarisation of the ray took place, and an image of the 
candle would be seen by an observer stationed at O. But, 
suppose the tube B to be turned a quarter round ; the 




F? S7 



Dt 



Fig. 2. 







A 





ARTOTYPE. E. 3IERSTADT 



SUGAR. I I 3 

plane of reflection is now at right angles to that of polari- 
sation, and the image will become invisible. When the tube 
B is turned half-way round, the candle is seen as brightly 
at first ; at the third quadrant it disappears, until, on com- 
pleting the revolution of the tube, it again becomes per- 
fectly visible. It is evident that the ray reflected from the 
glass plate P has acquired properties different from those 
possessed by ordinary light, which would have been re- 
flected by the plate A in whatever direction it might have 
been turned. 

If a ray of common light be made to pass through cer- 
tain crystals, such as calc spar, it undergoes double refrac- 
tion, and the light transmitted becomes polarised. The 
arrangement known as Nicol's prism, which consists of 
two prisms of calc spar, cut at a certain angle and united 
together by means of Canada balsam, is a very convenient 
means of obtaining polarised light. If two Nicol's prisms 
are placed in a similar position, one behind the other, the 
light polarised by the first (or polarising) prism passes 
through the second (or analysing) prism unchanged ; but if 
the second prism be turned until it crosses the first at a 
right angle, perfect darkness ensues. While it would 
exceed the limits of this work to enter fully upon the theo- 
retical explanations which are commonly advanced con- 
cerning the cause and nature of this polarised, or trans- 
formed light, it may be well to state here that common 
light is assumed to be composed of two systems of beams 
which vibrate in planes at right angles to each other, 
whereas polarised light is regarded as consisting of beams 
vibrating in a single plane only. If, now, we imagine the 
second Nicol's prism to be made up of a series of fibres or 
lines, running only in one direction, these fibres would act 
like a grating and give free passage to a surface like a 
knife blade only when this is parallel to the bars, but would 
obstruct it if presented transversely. This somewhat crude 
illustration will, perhaps, serve to explain why the rays 

I 



114 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

of light which have been polarised by the first Nicol's 
prism are allowed to pass through the second prism when 
the two are placed in a similar position, and why they are 
obstructed when the prisms are crossed at right angles, it 
being remembered that in a polarised ray the vibrations of 
the beams of light take place in a single plane. 

Suppose we place between the two Nicol's prisms, while 
they are at right angles, a plate cut in a peculiar manner 
from a crystal of quartz, we will discover that rays of light 
now pass through the second prism, and that the field of 
vision has become illuminated with beautiful colours — red, 
yellow, green, blue, etc., according to the thickness of the 
quartz plate used. On turning the second Nicol's prism 
on its axis, these colours will change and pass through the 
regular prismatic series, from red to violet, or the contrary, 
according to the direction of the rotation produced by the 
intervening plate. Quartz, therefore, possesses the remark- 
able property of rotating the plane of polarisation of the 
coloured rays of which light is composed ; and it has been 
discovered that some plates of this mineral exert this power 
to the right, others to the left ; that is, they possess a right 
or left-handed circular polarisation. Numerous other sub- 
stances, including many organic compounds, possess this 
quality of causing a rotation — either to the right or left — 
of a plane of polarised light. For example, solutions of 
cane sugar and ordinary glucose cause a right-handed rota- 
tion, whilst levulose and invert sugar exert a left-handed 
rotation. The extent of this power is directly proportional 
to the concentration of the solutions used, the length of the 
column through which the ray of polarised light passes 
being the same. It follows that on passing polarised light 
through tubes of the same length which are filled with solu- 
tions containing different quantities of impure cane sugar, 
an estimation of the amount of pure cane sugar contained 
in the tubes can be made by determining the degree of 
right-handed rotation produced ; and it is upon this fact 



SUGAR. I I 5 

that the application of the polariscope in sugar analysis is 
based. The optical portions of the most improved form of 
the polariscope — that known as the Ventzke-Scheibler — 
are represented by Fig. 2. 

The light from a gas burner enters at the extremity of 
the instrument and first passes through the " regulator A," 
which consists of the double refracting Nicol's prism a 
and the quartz plate b, it being so arranged that it can be 
turned round its own plane, thus varying the tint of the light 
used, so as to best neutralise that possessed by the sugar 
solution to be examined. The incident ray now penetrates 
the polarising Nicol's prism B, and next meets a double 
quartz plate C (3 '75 millimetres in thickness). This quartz 
plate, a front view of which is also shown in the figure, is 
divided in the field of vision, one half consisting of quartz 
rotating to the right hand, the other half of the variety 
which rotates to the left hand. It is made of the thickness 
referred to owing to the fact that it then imparts a very 
sensitive tint (purple) to polarised light, and one that 
passes very suddenly into red or blue when the rotation of 
the ray is changed. Since the plate C is composed of 
halves which exert opposite rotary powers, these will 
assume different colours upon altering the rotation of the 
ray. After leaving the double quartz plate the light, 
which, owing to its passage through the Nicol's prism B 
is now polarised, enters the tube D containing the solution 
of cane sugar under examination ; this causes it to undergo 
a right-handed rotation. It next meets the " compen- 
sator " E, consisting of a quartz plate c, which has a right- 
handed rotary power, and the two quartz prisms d, both of 
which are cut in a wedge shape and exert a left-handed 
rotation. They are so arranged that one is movable and 
can be made to slide along the other, which is fixed, thus 
causing an increase or decrease in their combined thickness 
and rotary effect. The ray of light then passes through 
the analysing Nicol's prism F, and is finally examined 

I 2 



Il6 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

by means of the telescope G, with the objective e and 
ocular f. Fig. 3 gives a perspective view of the Ventzke- 
Scheibler polariscope. The Nicol's prism and quartz 
plate which constitute the " regulator " are situated at A 
and B, and can be rotated by means of a pinion connecting 
with the button L. The polarising Nicol's prism is placed 
at C, and the double quartz plate at D. The receptacle h 
contains the tube P filled with sugar solution, and is pro- 
vided with the hinged cover k\ which serves to keep out 
the external light while an observation is being taken. The 
right-handed quartz plate and the wedge-shaped quartz 
prisms (corresponding to c and d t Fig. 2) are situated at G, 
and at E and F, and the analysing Nicol's prism is placed 
at H. When the wedge-shaped prisms have an equal 
thickness coinciding with that of the quartz plate c (Fig. 2) 
the left-handed rotary power of the former is exactly 
neutralised by the right-handed rotary power of the latter, 
and the field of vision seen at I is uniform in colour, the 
opposing rotary powers of the two halves of the double 
quartz plates C (Fig. 2) being also equalised. But if the 
tube, filled with a sugar solution, is placed in the instru- 
ment, the right-handed rotary power of this substance is 
added to that half of the double quartz plate which exerts 
the same rotary effect (the other half being diminished in a 
like degree), and the two divisions of the plate will now 
appear of different colours. In order to restore an equi- 
librium of colour the movable wedge-shaped quartz plate E 
is slid along its fellow F by means of the ratchet M, until 
the right-handed rotary power of the sugar solution is 
compensated for by the increased thickness of the left- 
handed plate, when the sections of the plate C will again 
appear uniform in colour. For the purpose of measuring 
the extent to which the unfixed plate has been moved, a 
small ivory scale is attached to this plate, and passes along 
an index scale connected with the fixed plate. The degrees 
marked on the scale, which are divided into tenths, are read 



SUGAR. 



117 



by aid of a mirror s attached to a magnifying glass K. 
When the polariscope is in what may be termed a state of 
equilibrium, i.e. before the tube containing the sugar 
solution has been placed in it, the index of the fixed scale 
points to the zero of the movable scale. 

In the practical use of the Ventzke-Scheibler sacchari- 
meter the method to be followed is essentially as follows : 
26*048 grammes of the sugar to be tested are carefully 
weighed out and introduced into a flask 100 cubic centi- 
metres in capacity ; water is added, and the flask shaken 
until all crystals are dissolved. The solution is next 
decolorised by means of basic plumbic acetate, its volume 
made up to 100 cubic centimetres, and a little bone-black 
having been added if necessary, a glass tube, corresponding 
to P (Fig. 3) which is exactly 200 millimetres in length, 
and is provided with suitable caps, is completely filled with 
the clear filtered liquid. This is then placed in the polari- 
scope, and protected from external light by closing the 
cover shown at h'. On now observing the field of vision 
by means of the telescope, it will be seen that the halves 
into which it is divided exhibit different colours. The 
screw M is then turned to the right until this is no longer 
the case, and absolute uniformity of colour is restored to 
the divisions of the double quartz plate C (Fig. 2). The 
extent to which the screw has been turned, which corre- 
sponds to the right-handed rotation caused by the sugar 
solution, is now ascertained on reading the scale by the aid 
of the glass K. The instrument under consideration is so 
constructed that, when solutions and tubes of the concen- 
tration and length referred to above are used, the reading 
on the scale gives directly the percentage of pure crystal- 
lisable cane sugar contained in the sample examined. For 
instance, if the zero index of the fixed scale points to 96°* 5 
on the movable scale, after uniformity of colour has been 
obtained, the sample of sugar taken contains 96*5 per 
cent, of pure cane sugar. The results given by the polari- 



I 1 8 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

scope possess an accuracy rarely, if ever, attained by any 
other apparatus employed in the determination of practical 
commercial values.* 

The proportion of grape sugar intentionally added to 
cane sugar can also be determined by the use of the 
polariscope, certain modifications being observed in its 
application. As previously stated, cane sugar is converted 
into a mixture of dextrose and levulose, termed invert 
sugar, by the action of dilute acids. While the rotary 
effect of dextrose upon the plane of a ray of polarised light 
is constant at temperatures under ioo°, that exerted by 
levulose varies, it being reduced as the temperature is 
increased ; hence it follows that at a certain temperature 
the diminished levo-rotary power of the levulose will 
become neutralised by the dextro-rotary effect of the 
dextrose, i.e. the invert sugar will be optically inactive. 
This temperature has been found to approximate 90 . 
Since dextrose is not perceptibly affected by the action of 
weak acids, it is evident that by converting cane sugar into 
invert sugar and examining the product by the polariscope 
at a temperature of about 90 , the presence of any added 
dextrose (glucose) will be directly revealed by its dextro- 
rotary action. This is accomplished by a method suggested 
by Messrs. Chandler and Ricketts,f which consists in sub- 
stituting for the ordinary observation tube of the polariscope 
a platinum tube, provided with a thermometer, and sur- 
rounded by a water-bath, which is heated to the desired 
temperature by a gas burner (Plate X. Fig. 4). The sugar 
solution to be examined is first treated with a little dilute 
sulphuric acid, then neutralised with sodium carbonate, 
clarified by means of basic plumbic acetate, filtered, and 
the polariscopic reading taken at a temperature of 86° to 
90°. 

* The foregoing description of the polariscope was embodied in an 
article contributed by the author to Van Nostrand's Engineering 
Magazine. 

t Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc, i. p. 1. 



SUGAR. 119 

Since the results given by the foregoing method repre- 
sent pure dextrose, it is necessary to first ascertain the 
dextro-rotary power of the particular variety of glucose 
probably employed for the adulteration of the sugar under 
examination, and then make the requisite correction. This 
process for the estimation of glucose is especially advan- 
tageous, in that the optical effect of the invert sugar 
normally present in raw cane sugars is rendered inactive. 

It is sometimes desirable to determine the relative pro- 
portions of the organic constituents which are present in 
commercial glucose. These usually consist of dextrose, 
maltose, and dextrine, all of which possess dextro-rotary 
power, but not in the same degree; that of dextrose 
being 52, that of maltose 139, and that of dextrine 193. 
An estimation of the amount of each can be made by 
first ascertaining the total rotary effect of the sample by 
means of the polariscope.* This is expressed by the 
equation 

P = 52 d + 139 m + 193 d', (1) 

in which P is the total rotation observed. Upon now 
treating the solution of glucose with an excess of an 
alkaline solution of mercuric cyanide (prepared by dis- 
solving 120 grammes of mercuric cyanide and 25 grammes 
of potassium hydroxide in 1 litre of water), the dextrose 
and maltose contained in the sample are decomposed, 
leaving the dextrine unaffected. A second polariscopic 
reading is then made, which gives the amount of dextrine 
present, that is 

P' = 193 d\ (2) 

from which the proportion of dextrine is calculated. 

Subtracting the second equation from the first, we have 

P- P' = 52^+ 139*0. (3) 

Both dextrose and maltose reduce Fehling's solu- 
* Wiley, Chem. News, xlvi. p. 175. 



120 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

tion, the total reduction (R) being the reducing per cent, 
of the former (d) added to that of the latter (m). The 
reducing power of maltose is, however, only o ■ 62 as com- 
pared with dextrine, therefore 

R = d + 0-62 7n. (4) 

Multiplying by 52, we have 

52 R = 52 d + 32*24 m y 

and subtract from (3), which gives 

P - F - 52 R = 106-76 m, (5) 

whence 

P _ F - 52 R ( ,. 

m = z — i , (0) 

10676 v ' 

d = R - o • 62 m (7) 

and 

V 
d = —. 

193 



( mi ) 



HONEY, 

Honey consists of the saccharine substance collected by 
the bee {Apis mellificd) from the nectaries of flowers, and 
deposited by them in the cells of the comb. "Virgin 
honey" is the product of hives that have not previously 
swarmed, which is allowed to drain from the comb ; the 
inferior varieties being obtained by the application of heat 
and pressure. As a result of the peculiar conditions of its 
formation, honey constitutes a rather complex mixture of 
several bodies ; indeed, its exact composition is a matter 
of some doubt. The chief ingredients are levulose and 
dextrose, accompanied by a small amount of cane sugar, 
and inconsiderable proportions of pollen, wax, and mineral 
matter. According to Dubrunfaut and Soubeiran* genuine 
honey contains an excess of levulose mixed with dextrose 
and some cane sugar. In the course of time the latter is 
gradually converted into invert sugar, and a crystalline 
deposit of dextrose forms, the levulose remaining fluid. 

The following analyses made by J. C. Brown f and E. 
Sieben, % show the general composition of pure honey : — 



J. C Brown. 



E. Sieben. 



Dextrose 

Levulose 

Total glucoses 

Sucrose 

Wax, pollen and insol. 

Ash 

Water at ioo° 
Undetermined 



31*77 to 42*02 

33'56 „ 40*43 
68*40 „ 79-72 

trace to 2*10 

0*07 „ 0*26 

15-50 „ 19-80 

4-95 „ ii-oo 



22-23 to 44-71 
32-15 „ 46-89 
67*92 „ 79'57 
none ,, 8*22 



16*28 to 24-95 
1-29 „ 8-82 



* * Comptes Rendus,' xxviii. p. 775. 
\ Zeits. Anal. Chem., xxiv. p. 135. 



t ' Analyst,' iii. p. 269. 



122 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 



Barth has examined several varieties of genuine honey 
with the following results : — 



Water - 

Dry substance 

Ash 

Polarisation of 10 perl Direct .. 
cent, solution (in 200 [After inver- 
millimetre tube) ) sion .. 

Q /Original substance 

^ ugar \ After inversion 

Organic matter, not sugar 



Per cent. 


Per cent. 


I3-60 


15*60 


86-40 


84-40 


0-28 


0*24 


-4-6° 


-5° 


. , 


-7'5° 


69*60 


72*0 


69-50 


77 -o 


l6'52 


7-16 



Per cent. 



ii-o6 

88-94 
0-90 
+ n° 

+ 4° 
6o # o 
74-6 
13*44 



W. Bishop* obtained the following figures from the 
examination of honey of known purity : — 





Hungarian. 


Chili. 


Italian. 


Normandy. 


Reducing sugar 
Crystallised sugar .. 
Direct polarisation .. 
Polarisation after inversion 


67-17 

7-58 
-13-70 
-15-40 


73'05 

4-55 
-I4-I5 

-14-85 


70-37 
5*77 

- 8-55 

-I2-Q 


79*39 
o* 

-9-25 



The substances said to be employed in the adulteration 
of honey are water, starch, cane sugar, and glucose-syrup ; 
the last mentioned is undoubtedly most commonly used. 
Hagerf states that, by treating corn starch with oxalic 
acid, a product is obtained which, on standing two or three 
weeks, acquires the appearance and taste of genuine honey ; 
and samples of commercial honey not unfrequently wholly 
consist of this or some other form of artificial glucose. 
The season for the collection of honey by bees is a limited 
one, and any existing deficiency in their natural source of 
supply is sometimes remedied by placing vessels filled 
with glucose near the hives. Occasionally the bees are 
also supplied with a ready-made comb, consisting, at least 
partially, of paraffine. It has been asserted that in some 

* Journ. de Pharm. et de Chem., 1884, p. 459. 
f Pharm. Centralb. 1885, pp. 303, 327. 



HONEY. 123 

instances, this factitious comb is entirely composed of 
paraffine, but the writer is informed that, if the sophistica- 
tion is practised to a proportion of over 10 per cent, the 
bees do not readily deposit the honey in the comb. 

Owing to the complex composition of honey and to the 
rather incomplete character of the analyses of the genuine 
article at hand, the detection of some of the forms of adul- 
teration resorted to is a matter of considerable difficulty. 
The presence of starch is best recognised by the microscopic 
examination of the honey. This will likewise reveal the 
absence of pollen, which may be regarded as a certain 
indication of the spurious nature of the sample. There 
appears to exist a difference of opinion in regard to the 
presence of cane sugar in genuine honey, but it may safely 
be accepted that the detection of a considerable proportion 
of this substance points to its artificial addition. In all 
cases of suspected adulteration with cane sugar or glucose, 
the determination of the sugar present by means of the 
polariscope and by Fehling's method (both before and 
after inversion) is indispensable. It is commonly stated 
that unsophisticated honey polarises to the left, and that 
a sample possessing a dextro-rotary action is necessarily 
contaminated with glucose or cane sugar ; but, while in the 
great majority of cases this is doubtless the fact, it is equally 
certain that honey of known purity has been met with 
which polarised to the right. Upon the inversion of honey 
containing cane sugar, the dextro-rotation is changed to a 
levo-rotation. 

According to Lenz,* the specific gravity (at 17 ) of a 
solution of 30 grammes of pure honey in exactly twice the 
quantity of distilled water is never less than 1 * 1 1 10, a lower 
density indicating adulteration with water. Hehnerf states 
that the ash of genuine honey is always alkaline, whereas 
that of artificial glucose is invariably neutral. The pro- 
portion of phosphoric acid present in honey varies from 

* " Chemiker Zeitung,' viii., p. 613. t * Analyst,' x., p. 217. 



124 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

0*013 to 0'035 per cent., which is considerably less than 
the proportion contained in starch sugars. Honey con- 
taminated with starch sugar will generally show about 
o*io per cent, of phosphoric acid, and artificial honey, 
made from cane sugar, will usually be free from the acid. 

The addition of commercial glucose may often be detected 
by the turbidity produced upon adding ammonium oxalate 
to a filtered aqueous solution of the sample ; this is due to 
the presence of calcium sulphate, a common impurity in 
the commercial varieties of glucose. If the glucose em- 
ployed for admixture contains much dextrine, as is very 
often the case, this fact can be utilised in its detection 
as follows : — 2 c.c. of a 25 per cent, solution of the honey 
are introduced into a narrow glass cylinder, and o ' 5 c.c. of 
absolute alcohol is cautiously added ; with pure honey, the 
point of contact of the liquids will remain clear or become 
so upon allowing the mixture to stand at rest, whereas in 
presence of artificial glucose a milky turbidity will appear 
between the two strata. Genuine honey may, it is true, 
contain a small proportion of dextrine and exhibit a slight 
cloudiness when treated with alcohol, but the difference in 
the degree of turbidity caused is very considerable, and 
sufficient to render the test of service. 

The test may also be applied by dissolving 20 grammes 
of the suspected honey in 60 c.c. of distilled water and 
then adding an excess of alcohol. Under these circum- 
stances pure honey merely becomes milky, while, if com- 
mercial glucose is present, a white precipitate of dextrine 
is formed, which can be collected and weighed. If the 
sugar in the sample is determined by Fehling's solution, 
both before and after inversion with a little sulphuric acid, 
and an estimation of the amount of dextrine present is 
made by precipitation with alcohol, it often occurs that the 
quantity of the latter substance is proportional to the dif- 
ference between the amount of sugar found. 

According to the late investigations of Sieben,* fairly 
* Zeitsch. d. Vereins. f. d. Riibenzucker Ind., p. 837. 



HONEY. 125 

satisfactory methods for the detection and determination of 
glucose syrup in honey are based upon the following 
facts : — 

1st. When genuine honey undergoes fermentation, the 
substances which remain undecomposed. are optically in- 
active. Glucose, or starch syrup, on the other hand, leaves 
a considerable amount of dextrine, which is strongly dextro- 
gyrate. The test is made by dissolving 25 grammes of 
honey in about 160 c.c. of water, and adding 12 grammes 
of yeast (free from starch). The mixture is allowed to 
ferment at a moderate temperature for two or three days, 
after which aluminium hydroxide is added, and the liquid 
made up to 250 c.c. and then filtered. 200 c.c. of the filtrate 
are evaporated to a volume of 50 c.c, and a 200 mm. tube 
is then filled with the concentrated solution and examined 
by the polariscope. 

2nd. The substances remaining unaffected by the fer- 
mentation of pure honey are not converted into a reducing 
sugar by boiling with dilute hydrochloric acid, as is the 
case with those obtained from starch syrup under the same 
circumstances. 25 c.c. of the solution employed for the 
polarisation test, as just described, are diluted with an 
equal volume of water, 5 c.c. of strong hydrochloric acid 
added, and the mixture is placed in a flask and heated for 
an hour over the water-bath. The contents of the flask 
are neutralised with potassium hydroxide, then diluted to 
a volume of 100 c.c, and the proportion of reducing sugar 
estimated in 25 c.c of the solution. Honey containing 
different proportions of starch sugar gave the following 
percentages of reducing sugar : — 



Starch-Sugar Present, 
per cent. 

5 


Reducing Sugar Obtained 
per cent. 

1-472 


10 
20 

40 


3*240 
6*392 
£•854 



3rd. If the cane sugar originally present in genuine 
honey has been changed into invert sugar, and the honey 



126 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 



solution is boiled with a slight excess of Fehling's reagent, 
no substances capable of yielding sugar when treated with 
acids will remain undecomposed. Starch syrup, when 
subjected to this treatment, yields grape sugar in about the 
proportion of 40 parts to every 100 parts of the syrup used. 
The test is applied as follows : — 14 grammes of honey are 
dissolved in 450 c.c. of water, and the solution is heated 
over the steam-bath with 20 c.c. of semi-normal acid, in 
order to invert the cane sugar present. After heating 
for half an hour, the solution is neutralised, and its volume 
made up to 500 c.c. 100 c.c. of Fehling's solution are then 
titrated with this solution, which may contain about 2 per 
cent, of invert sugar (in case the sample examined is pure, 
from 23 to 26 c.c. will be required); 100 c.c. of Fehling's 
reagent are next boiled with o ■ 5 c.c. less of the honey solu- 
tion than was found to be necessary to completely reduce 
the copper. The reduced liquid is then passed through an 
asbestos filter, the residue washed with hot water, the filtrate 
treated with a slight excess of concentrated hydrochloric 
acid, and the solution heated for one hour on the steam- 
bath. Sodium hydroxide is now added, until only a very 
little free acid remains unneutralised, and the solution is 
made up to 200 c.c. Upon well shaking the cooled liquid, 
a deposit of tartar sometimes separates. 150 c.c. of the 
filtered solution are finally boiled with a mixture of 120 c.c. 
of Fehling's reagent and 20 c.c. of water, and the proportion 
of grape sugar estimated from the amount of metallic copper 
obtained. (See p. in.) When pure honey is submitted 
to the preceding process, the copper found will not exceed 
2 milligrammes. The quantities of copper obtained when 
honey adulterated with various proportions of starch sugar 
was tested were about as follows : — 



Starch Sugar 


Milligrammes of 


Starch Sugar 


Milligrammes of 


contained. 


Copper found. 


contained. 


Copper found. 


per cent. 




per cent. 




IO 


40 


50 


250 


20 


90 


60 


330 


30 


I40 


70 


4IO 


40 


195 


80 


500 



HONEY. 



127 



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128 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

The tabulation on p. 127 exhibits the results obtained 
by the application of the foregoing tests to adulterated 
honey.* 

The detection of paraffine in honeycomb is easily accom- 
plished. Genuine bees'-wax fuses at 64°, paraffine usually 
at a lower temperature. The latter is not affected by treat- 
ment with concentrated sulphuric acid, whereas bees'-wax 
is dissolved by the strong acid, and undergoes carbonisation 
upon the application of heat. The amount of potassium 
hydroxide required for the saponification of one gramme 
of bees'-wax, as applied in Koettstorfer's method for butter 
analysis (p. 71), widely differs from the quantities con- 
sumed by Japanese wax and paraffine. Mr. Edward W. 
Martin has obtained the following figures : — 

Milligrammes K (O H) required 
to saponify one gramme. 

Bees'-wax , .. .. 7*0 

Japanese wax , .. .. 212*95 

Paraffine .* none 

18 out of 37 samples of strained and comb honey, ex- 
amined in 1885 by the Mass. State Board of Health, were 
adulterated with glucose and ordinary syrup. 



Jahresberichte,' 1884, p. 105 1. 



( 129 ) 



CONFECTIONERY. 

PURE white candy should consist entirely of cane sugar 
with its water of crystallisation, but most of the article 
commonly met with contains a large proportion of glucose, 
and in many cases it is wholly composed of this compound 
(see p. 109). Starch and terra alba (i. e. gypsum or kaolin), 
are the other adulterants sometimes employed to fraudu- 
lently increase the bulk and weight of candy. 

The substances used for colouring purposes are more 
liable to be positively deleterious. While such colouring 
agents as caramel, turmeric, litmus, saffron, beet-juice, indigo, 
and some of the coal-tar dyes may be considered com- 
paratively harmless, there can be no question in regard to 
the very objectionable character of certain other pigments 
which are sometimes employed : these are mainly inorganic, 
and include plumbic chromate, salts of copper and arsenic, 
zinc-white, barium sulphate and Prussian blue. Another 
occasional form of adulteration to which some kinds of 
confectionery are exposed, is the admixture of artificial 
flavourings, such as " pear essence " (amylic and ethylic 
acetates), " banana essence " (a mixture of amylic acetate 
and ethylic butyrate), and oil of bitter almonds, or its 
imitation, nitro-benzole. A preparation known as "rock 
and rye drops," which had acquired a great popularity 
among school children in several of our large cities, proved 
upon analysis to consist of a mixture of glucose, flour, and 
fusel oil. 

The examination of candy and other forms of confec- 
tionery usually embraces the determinations of glucose, 
starch, flour, colouring and flavouring agents, terra alba, 

K 



I30 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

and mineral admixtures generally. The detection and 
estimation of glucose has already been described under 
Sugar. 

Starch and flour are readily detected upon treating 
a minute portion of the suspected candy with a 
little water and submitting the mixture to a microscopic 
examination, when, in their presence, the insoluble residue 
will exhibit the characteristic forms of starch granules. The 
insoluble portion of the sample may also be tested with a 
solution of iodine. The proportion of starch can be deter- 
mined by boiling the matter insoluble in water with dilute 
sulphuric acid, and estimating the amount of glucose found, 
by means of Fehling's solution. 

Coal-tar and vegetable compounds used for colouring 
purposes, can often be recognised by means of their 
behaviour with reducing and oxidising agents, by their 
solubility in spirits and other menstrua, and by the appli- 
cation of dyeing-tests. Thus vegetable colours may some- 
times be identified upon boiling mordanted cotton yarn in 
a bath prepared from a portion of the sample containing 
the colouring matter, and slightly acidulated with acetic 
acid. This process will likewise generally reveal the 
presence of aniline dyes, unmordanted woollen cloth being 
substituted for cotton, and a neutral bath being employed. 
The inorganic pigments used for colouring candy are 
usually to be sought for in the ash obtained upon incinera- 
tion. 

The presence of copper and lead is detected by the for- 
mation of black precipitates upon saturating with sul- 
phuretted hydrogen the solution of the ash in hydrochloric 
acid ; zinc, chromium, etc., are precipitated from the 
filtered solution upon addition of , ammonium hydroxide 
and ammonium sulphide. It is frequently more convenient 
to apply special tests for the particular metal thought to 
be present, either directly to the pigment or to the ash. In 
this way, arsenic can often be recognised by treating a por- 



CONFECTIONERY. I 3 I 

tion of the colouring matter in a test-tube, when it will 
sublime and collect upon the cool part of the tube in 
minute crystals of arsenious acid. Or, an acidulated solu- 
tion of the detached pigments may be boiled with a piece 
of polished copper-foil, upon which the arsenic will be 
deposited as a greyish film : this can be sublimed, and 
otherwise further examined. 

Copper is easily detected and estimated by placing the 
acid solution of the ash in a tared platinum dish, and 
reducing the copper by the electrolytic method. Chro- 
mium is recognised upon boiling the colouring matter with 
potassium carbonate solution : in its presence, potassium 
chromate is formed, which is submitted to the usual dis- 
tinctive tests for chromium. The colour of Prussian blue 
is destroyed upon warming it with caustic alkalies : indigo, 
which remains unaffected by this treatment, forms a blue 
solution if heated with concentrated sulphuric acid. The 
presence of terra alba, barium sulphate, etc., is best 
detected by the examination of the ash. Chalk, or marble- 
dust, is recognised by its effervescence when treated with 
an acid, as well as by the presence of a notable proportion 
of lime in the ash. 

Many of the flavouring mixtures added to candy may be 
separated by treating the sample with chloroform or petro- 
leum naphtha and evaporating the solution to dryness over 
a water-bath, when their identity is frequently revealed by 
their odour and other physical properties. Of 198 samples 
of the cheaper varieties of confectionery examined by 
Health officials in the United States, 1 1 5 were adulterated. 
Plumbic chromate is a very common addition ; 41 out of 
48 samples of yellow- and orange-coloured candy contained 
this poisonous pigment. 



K 2 



( 132 ) 



BEER. 



The name beer is most commonly applied to a fermented 
infusion of malted barley, flavoured with hops. Its manu- 
facture embraces two distinct operations, viz., malting 
and brewing. Briefly considered, the former process con- 
sists in first steeping barley (the seed of Hordeum 
distichon) in water and allowing it to germinate by arrang- 
ing it in layers or heaps which are subsequently spread 
out and repeatedly turned over, the germination being 
thereby retarded ; it is afterwards entirely checked by 
drying the grain (now known as malt) in cylinders or 
kilns. 

The degree of temperature employed in drying and 
roasting the barley determines the colour and commercial 
character of the malt, which may be pale, amber, brown 
or black. In the United States the light-coloured 
varieties of malt are chiefly made. An important change 
which takes place during the malting of barley is the 
conversion of its albuminous constituents into a peculiar 
ferment, termed diastase, which, although its proportion 
in malt does not exceed 0*003 per cent, exerts a very 
energetic action in transforming starch, first into dextrine, 
then into sugar (maltose). The following analyses, 
by Proust, exhibit the general composition of unmalted 
and malted barley : — 



Hordeine 
Starch . 
Gluten . 
Sugar 
Mucilage 
Resin 



Barley. 



55 
32 
3 
5 
4 
1 

100 



Malt. 



12 

56 

I 

15 

15 

I 

IOO 



BEER. 



133 



The body termed hordeine is generally considered to be 
an allotropic modification of starch. 

In the brewing of beer, the malted grain is crushed by 

means of iron rollers, and then introduced into the 

mash-tubs and digested with water at a temperature of 

about 75° whereby the conversion of the starch into 

dextrine and sugar is effected. After standing for a few 

hours, the clear infusion, or wort, is drawn off and boiled 

with hops (the female flower of Humulus lupulus), after 

which it is rapidly cooled, and then placed in capacious 

vats where it is mixed with yeast and allowed to undergo 

the process of fermentation for several days, during which 

the formation of fresh quantities of yeast and a partial 

decomposition of the sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid 

take place. The beer is next separated from the yeast 

and transferred into clearing-vats, and, later on, into storage 

casks, where it undergoes a slow after-fermentation, at the 

completion of which it is ready for consumption. The 

quality of the water used in the process of mashing and 

brewing is of great importance, and it is of special moment 

that it should be free from all organic contaminations. The 

presence of certain mineral ingredients, notably of calcium 

sulphate, is believed to exert a beneficial effect on the 

character of the beer obtained. 

In the United States, the best known varieties of malt 
liquors are ale, porter, and lager beer. The difference between 
ale and porter is mainly due to the quality of the malt used 
in their manufacture. Ale is made from pale malt, porter 
or stout from a mixture of the darker coloured malts, the 
method of fermentation employed being in both cases that 
known as the " superficial " {obergakrung), which takes place 
at a higher temperature and is of shorter duration than 
the "sedimentary" (untergakrung). The latter form of 
fermentation, which is used in the preparation of Bavarian 
or lager beer, occurs at a temperature of about 8°, and 
requires more time for its completion, during which the 



134 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

beer is, or should be, preserved in cool cellars for several 
months before it is fit for use ; hence the common American 
name of this kind of beer, from lager, a storehouse. There 
are three varieties of Bavarian beer, " lager beer " proper, 
or the summer beer, which has been stored for about five 
months ; " sckenk," or winter beer, which is fit for use in 
several weeks ; and " bock " beer, which possesses more 
strength than the former, and is made in comparatively 
small quantities in the spring of the year. A mild kind of 
malt liquor, known as "weiss" beer, and prepared by a 
quick process of fermentation, is less frequently met with. 

The first brewery in America is said to have been founded 
in New York in the year 1644, by Jacobus, who afterwards 
became the first burgomaster of the city, then New 
Amsterdam. Subsequently, William Penn established a 
brewery in Bucks Co., Pa., and a century later, General 
Putnam engaged in the manufacture of beer in the State of 
Connecticut. The brewing of lager beer in the United 
States began to assume prominence about thirty-five years 
ago. It is estimated that, at the present time, over 2000 
breweries are devoted to the preparation of this form of 
malt liquor, with an invested capital of at least 60 millions 
of dollars, the annual production exceeding 15 millions of 
barrels.* The industry is chiefly carried on in New 
York, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Milwaukee, St. Louis, and 
Cincinnati. 

The composition of beer naturally varies according to 
the kind of grain from which it is made and the process of 
fermentation employed. The chief ingredients are alcohol, 
carbonic acid, sugar (maltose), dextrine, the oil and bitter 
principle of hops (lupuline), albuminoids, lactic, acetic, 
succinic and propionic acids, inorganic salts, and traces of 
glycerine. The term "extract" is applied to the non- 

* The total production of all kinds of malt liquors in the United 
States was, for the fiscal year 1886, 20 millions of barrels ; it is assumed 
that at least three-quarters of this amount consisted of lager beer. 



BEER. 



135 



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I36 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

volatile constituents, which include the sugar, dextrine, 
albuminoids, ash, etc. The foregoing table, collated from 
the analyses of various chemists, gives the general com- 
position of some of the best known brands of malt liquor, 
as well as the minimum and maximum proportions that 
have been found. 

The composition of beer ash is evidently affected by the 
character of the water used in the brewing process. Blyth 
gives the following as the average composition of the ash 
of English beers : — 

Per cent. 

Potash 37'22 

Soda 8*04 

Lime 1*93 

Magnesia 5-51 

Ferric oxide traces 

Sulphuric acid 1-44 

Phosphoric acid 32*09 

Chlorine 2*91 

Silica 10*82 

The following results were obtained by the writer from 
the analysis of the ash of American lager beer of fair 
quality : — 

Per cent. 

Silica 9'97 

Alumina and ferric oxide . . . . o * 46 

Lime 3-55 

Magnesia 7*27 

Soda 13*81 

Potassa r 9*59 

Sulphuric acid 3*25 

Chlorine 4*40 

Phosphoric acid .. 37" 70 

10 • 000 
Percentage of ash 0*274 

Strictly speaking, normal beer consists solely of the 
product of malt and hops, and the presence of any in- 
gredients other than these should be regarded as an 
adulteration. It is maintained by brewers, and with 
justice, that the term "malt" is not necessarily restricted 
to barley, but includes other varieties of malted grain, such 



BEER. 137 

as wheat, corn, and rice. The old English law, while per- 
mitting the addition of wholesome bitters, prohibits the use 
of various other substances, but in the United States, no 
legal definition of pure beer has, as yet, been formulated, 
and the necessity for such a measure is being experienced.* 
The past literature of beer adulteration makes mention of 
very numerous substances which, in former times, have 
been resorted to as admixtures. Among these the follow- 
ing are the most prominent : — 

1st Artificial bitters. — Picric acid, picrotoxine, aloes, 
gentian, quassia, and wormwood. Several years ago the 
author had occasion to examine two samples, imported 
under the name of " hop substitutes," both of which proved 
to consist of salicine, the bitter principle of the willow. The 
fruit of the hop tree (Ptelea trifoliatd), has also been em- 
ployed as an artificial bitter for beer. 

2nd. Flavourings. — For flavouring purposes, cayenne 
pepper, "grains of paradise," cloves, orris root, coriander 
seeds, the oils of anise, nutmegs, and carraway, are stated 
to have been used. 

3rd. Malt substitutes. — These mainly consist of corn, rice, 
and glucose. 

A substitute for malt, of rather recent origin, and com- 
mercially known as " cerealine," is prepared by subjecting 
hulled and coarsely ground Indian corn to the action of 
steam, the product being subsequently pulverised by means 
of hot rollers. It is said to have the following average 
composition : — 

Water 9-98 

Insoluble starch 61*43 

Soluble starch, dextrine, and maltose .. .. 17 '79 

Albuminoids 9*07 

Oil 1*22 

Cellulose 0*23 

Mineral matter 0*28 

* In Bavaria the use of all malt and hop substitutes is legally 
prohibited. 



I38 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

In addition to the foregoing, several chemical com- 
pounds, such as ammonium carbonate, tartaric acid, alka- 
line phosphates, boric and salicylic acids and glycerine are, 
or at least have been, employed as accessories in the 
manufacture of beer. From the investigations of the New- 
York State Board of Health, it appears that the present 
adulteration of American beer — more especially of " lager 
beer " — is limited, so far as the brewer is concerned, to the 
use of various substitutes for malt, the addition of salt, and 
of sodium bicarbonate. 

The proportion of diastase obtained by the germination 
of barley, or other cereals, is largely in excess of the 
amount required to convert into sugar the starch actually 
present in the grain treated ; hence the brewer can add 
other forms of amylaceous substances, such as corn or rice, 
to malted barley with decided economy, and the majority 
of New York brewers employ such substitutes, usually in 
a proportion of 25 per cent. The brewer may likewise 
advantageously add glucose syrup to the malt infusion, 
since, by its use, he arrives at the same end, i. e. instead of 
obtaining all of his sugar as the result of the malting process, 
he directly provides himself with the same body, at least 
so far as it possesses value to him as a source of alcohol. 
The question of the sanitary effects of the use of artificial 
glucose as an adulterant of sugar and syrups, and as a 
substitute for malted grain in the manufacture of beer, has 
given rise to extensive controversy. In this regard, one 
fact seems to have been demonstrated. Glucose, as it is 
now to be found on the market, is free from any appreciable 
amount of deleterious contamination. The discovery of 
its artificial production has given birth to a very important 
branch of industry, and, according to all available reports, 
the commercial product at present met with is for many 
purposes an economical and harmless substitute for cane 
sugar, the chief objection to its application as such being 
the fact that it possesses considerably less sweetening power. 



BEER. 



139 



The United States National Academy of Sciences, after 
having carefully investigated the sanitary aspects of the 
glucose question, arrived at the following conclusion : * 
" That, though having at best only about two-thirds the 
sweetening power of cane sugar, yet starch sugar is in no 
way inferior to the cane sugar in healthfulness, there being 
no evidence before the committee that maize-starch sugar, 
either in its normal condition or fermented, has any dele- 
terious effect upon the system, even when taken in large 
quantities." In regard to the use of glucose as a substitute 
for malt in beer-making, it is asserted by some authorities 
that dietetic advantages to be derived from pure malt will 
be to some extent wanting in the extractive matters of 
beer manufactured partially from the artificial product. A 
distinction between glucose and maltose, to the advantage 
of the latter, is also made. The brewer, on the other hand, 
claims that sugar is sugar, whether obtained from the malt- 
ing of grain or from the conversion of starch by the aid of 
acids. Regarding these bodies merely as sources of alcohol, 
attempts to differentiate between them are of little service. 
The superiority claimed for barley malt over its substi- 
tutes would rather appear to be due to its greater richness 
in certain soluble constituents, more especially those con- 
taining nitrogen and phosphoric acid.f A proposed law to 
prohibit the use of all malt substitutes has recently been 
rejected by the German Reichstag. In the English Beer 
Adulteration Act (1886), however, it is directed that, in 

* ' Report of the National Academy of Sciences,' 1883, p. 88. 

f Hanemann has made the following determinations of fermented 
worts prepared from pure malt and from malts containing 40 per cent, 
of each substitute : — 





Pure Malt. 


Maize Malt. 


Rice Malt. 


Starch Malt. 


Alcohol .. 
Extract 
Proteids .. 


2*71 
6-59 
o*43 


2*76 
6*48 
0-39 


2-90 
6*25 

o'33 


3*19 
5' 9 I 
0-28 



I4-0 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

case beer (ale or porter) made from other substances than 
hops and barley-malt is offered for sale, the fact shall be 
mentioned on a prominent placard, stating the nature of the 
foreign ingredients. 

The addition of sodium bicarbonate is resorted to in 
order to increase the effervescing power of the beverage, 
and, possibly in some instances, to neutralise the acids 
formed by the souring of new and hastily prepared beer.* 
One of the chief objections to which certain inferior 
varieties of American lager beer are open is that they are 
not allowed to " age " properly. The apparent gain to the 
brewer of such beer consists in an economy of time and 
ice ; he is also enabled to turn over his invested capital 
sooner than the more scrupulous manufacturer, who is thus 
placed in a disadvantageous position so far as trade compe- 
tition is concerned. It is stated that some of the beer 
made in the neighbourhood of New York is sent out for 
consumption two weeks after its brewing, t Beer of this 
character would be apt to contain abnormally large pro- 
portions of dextrine, dextrose, etc., as well as be contami- 
nated with unchanged yeast and other products of imperfect 
fermentation. It is said to be the practice to submit it to 
a process of clarification by means of isinglass and cream 
of tartar, and then impart additional life to the product 
by adding sodium bicarbonate, which is used in the form 
of cartridges or pills, and in a proportion of two ounces of the 
salt to the keg of beer.J Such a beverage obviously 

* The writer is assured by a prominent New York brewer, that the 
addition of sodium bicarbonate is resorted to, not so much as a remedy 
for poor beer, as for the purpose of satisfying the vitiated taste of the 
public, who demand a lively and sparkling beverage. The proportion 
employed is claimed not to exceed one ounce to the keg of beer. 

f 'Annual Report Brooklyn Board of Health,' 1885, p. 89.— The 
accuracy of this statement is denied by the brewers. A blending of 
new and old beer is, however, occasionally practised with, it is said, 
no deleterious effects. 

% Ibid. 



BEER. 141 

possesses very little claim to the name "lager" beer. It 
is, perhaps, to this reprehensible practice that many of the 
deleterious effects on the digestive organs which sometimes 
follow the consumption of considerable quantities of poor 
grades of lager beer are to be ascribed ; and it is often 
asserted to be the fact that beer drinkers who have 
daily drunk from 20 to 25 glasses of German beer 
with apparent impunity, experience disagreeable results from 
the habitual consumption of much smaller quantities of 
some varieties of American lager. 

It should be remarked, in this connection, that the 
brewer is by no means responsible for all of the sophistica- 
tions to which beer is exposed, as after it leaves his hands 
it may be watered by the retailer as well as allowed to 
deteriorate in quality by careless methods of preserva- 
tion. From all procurable information, it would appear 
that the only questionable features of beer brewing, as now 
generally carried on in the United States, are the 
following : — 

1st. The use of corn and other meals, and of artificial 
glucose as substitutes for malted barley. 

2nd. The use of sodium bicarbonate, to impart additional 
life to the beer, and the occasional use of common salt. 

Concerning the alleged employment of artificial bitters 
in beer it should be stated, that a few years since, when 
a very marked increase occurred in the price of hops, 
other bitter preparations were advertised and offered for 
sale in the market ; unfortunately, but little authentic 
data can be secured in regard to the extent of their use. 
At present, this form of adulteration has apparently been 
discontinued. It is worthy of notice, that the addition of 
hops to beer was originally considered a falsification, and 
was prohibited in England by legal enactments. In regard 
to the manufacture and sale of partially fermented beer, the 
question of the prevalence of this practice must be regarded 
as undetermined. No objection exists to the proper use of 



142 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

isinglass or other forms of gelatine for the clarification of 
beer. 

Of 476 samples of beer tested by Dr. F. E. Engelhardt, of 
the New York State Board of Health, about one-quarter 
gave evidence of the use of malt substitutes in their manu- 
facture, but no sample was conclusively shown to be adulte- 
rated with bitters other than hops. 

The examination of beer properly includes an inspection 
of its physical characteristics, such as taste, colour, and 
transparency, the determination of the specific gravity, 
quantitative estimations of the proportions of alcohol, 
carbonic acid, extractive matter, sugar, organic acids, 
ash and phosphoric acid, and qualitative tests for the 
detection of the presence of artificial substitutes for malt 
and hops. 

When of good quality, beer exhibits a bright and trans- 
parent colour, a faint but not disagreeable aroma, and a 
clean and slightly bitter taste. It should be free from any 
signs of viscosity, the appearance of which is usually an 
indication of the presence of unchanged yeast. 

The specific gravity of beer is determined by first remov- 
ing the excess of carbonic acid by repeatedly agitating the 
sample in a capacious glass flask, or by pouring it from 
one beaker into another several times, and then filling 
a specific gravity bottle with the liquid and allowing it to 
stand at rest until all air or gas bubbles have escaped ; 
the weight of the bottle and its contents is now taken at 1 5 . 
In order to determine the proportion of alcohol present, 
100 c.c of the beer are introduced in a suitable flask which 
is connected with a Liebig's condenser and subjected to 
distillation until about one-half of the quantity taken has 
passed over. The distillate is then made up to its original 
volume by the addition of water, and its density ascer- 
tained by means of the specific gravity bottle, from which 
the percentage of alcohol present (by weight and by volume) 
is readily obtained upon referring to the alcoholometric table 



BEER. 143 

on p. 144. The frothing of beer and the volatilisation of the 
free acids present are best obviated by the addition of a 
little tannic acid and baryta-water to the sample before 
the distillation. An indirect method for the determination 
of alcohol in beer is also frequently employed. It is ac- 
complished by first ascertaining the density of the liquor, 
next removing the alcohol present by evaporation over the 
water-bath, subsequently adding sufficient water to restore 
the original volume and again taking the specific gravity 
of the product. The density of spirit of equal strength to 

the beer taken (x) is obtained by the formula, — -, = x, 

in which D is the original gravity of the sample, and D' the 
gravity of the de-alcoholised liquor when made up to its 
first volume. The following table (see p. 144) from 'Watts' 
Dictionary of Chemistry ' gives the percentages of alcohol 
by volume and weight, corresponding to different densities 
at 1 5 . 

The amount of carbonic acid is conveniently found by 
introducing 100 c.c. of the well-cooled beer into a rather 
large flask, provided with a delivery-tube which connects, 
first with a wash-bottle containing concentrated sulphuric 
acid, next with a U-tube, filled with fused calcium chloride. 
The latter is connected with a Liebig's bulb containing a 
solution of potassium hydroxide, then with a U-tube 
containing solid potassium hydroxide, both of which have 
previously been tared. The flask is heated over a water- 
bath until the evolution of carbonic acid ceases, after 
which, the gas remaining in the apparatus is caused to 
traverse the potash bulb by drawing air through it. This 
is done by means of a tube attached to the flask and 
reaching below the surface of the beer. At its other ex- 
tremity, it is drawn out to a fine point and connected with 
a small potash bulb (for the retention of atmospheric car- 
bonic acid), by aid of a rubber tube, which permits of break- 
ing the glass point before drawing air through the 



144 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 



apparatus. The amount of carbonic acid present in the 
sample is ascertained by the increase of weight found in 
the larger potash bulb and U-tube. 

Alcoholometric Table for Beer, etc. 



Volume 
per cent. 


Weight 
per cent. 


Specific Gravity. 


Volume 
per cent. 


Weight 
per cent. 


Specific Gravity. 


I'O 


o-8o 


0*99850 


4'5 


3*60 


0-99350 


1*1 


o.88 


0-99835 


4-6 


3-68 


C99336 


1*2 


0*96 


0*99820 


4"7 


3-76 


0*99322 


i*3 


1*04 


0*99805 


4'8 


3-84 


0*99308 


1*4 


1*12 


0*99790 


4*9 


3-92 


C99294 


i"5 


I* 20 


C99775 


5*0 


4-00 


0-99280 


i-6 


1-28 


0-99760 


5'i 


4-08 


0-99267 


i'7 


1-36 


C99745 


5-2 


4'i6 


0-99254 


i-8 


i*44 


0-99730 


5*3 


4*24 


0-99241 


i'9 


1-52 


0-99715 


5*4 


4'32 


0*99228 


2'0 


i" 60 


O * 99700 


5*5 


4*40 


0-992I5 


2'I 


i-68 


0-99686 


5'6 


4-48 


0-99202 


2*2 


1*76 


0-99672 


5*7 


4*56 


C99189 


2*3 


1-84 


0-99658 


5-8 


4*64 


0-99176 


2'4 


1-92 


0-99644 


5'9 


4*72 


0-99163 


2'5 


2' OO 


0*99630 


6-o 


4*81 


0*99150 


2*6 


2-08 


0-99616 


6*i 


4-89 


0-99137 


27 


2"l6 


0-99602 


6*2 


4'97 


C99124 


2*8 


2*24 


0-99588 


6-3 


5-o5 


0*99111 


2*9 


2-32 


0-99574 


6*4 


5'i3 


0*99098 


3*o 


2' 40 


0-99560 


6-5 


5*21 


C99085 


3'i 


2-48 


C99546 


6*6 


5'3o 


0*99072 


3*2 


2-56 


C99532 


6*7 


5*38 


0-99059 


3'3 


2'64 


0*99518 


6*8 


5*46 


0-99046 


3'4 


272 


0*99504 


6*9 


5"54 


0-99033 


3*5 


2-80 


0*99490 


7*0 


5-62 


0*99020 


3*6 


2-88 


0*99476 


7*1 


5-70 


O * 99008 


3*7 


2*96 


0*99462 


7*2 


5-78 


0*98996 


3'8 


3*o4 


0*99448 


7*3 


5-86 


0-98984 


3*9 


3*12 


o* 99434 


7*4 


5-94 


0*98972 


4-o 


3* 20 


* 99420 


7'S 


6-02 


0-98960 


4*i 


3*28 


0*99406 


7*6 


6-n 


C98949 


4*2 


3*36 


0*99392 


7'7 


6*19 


0*98936 


4'3 


3 "44 


0*99378 


7*8 


6-27 


0*98924 


4'4 


3*52 


0*99364 


7*9 


6'35 


0*98912 








8-o 


6'43 


O • 989OO 



The proportion of malt extract in beer can be directly- 
determined by the evaporation of 5 or 10 c.c. of the 
sample in a capacious platinum dish over the water-bath 



BEER. 



145 



and drying the residue until constant weight is obtained.* 
It should be allowed to cool under a bell-jar over calcium 
chloride, before weighing. Usually the estimation is made 
by an indirect process, which consists in removing the 
alcohol by evaporation, bringing the liquid up to its 
original volume by the addition of water, and then taking 
its specific gravity and determining the percentage of malt 
extract by means of the following table : — 



Specific Gravity and Strength of 


Malt Extract. 


Specific 


Per Cent. 


Specific 


Per Cent. 


Specific 


Per Cent. 


Gravity. 


Malt Extract. 


Gravity. 


Malt Extract. 


Gravity. 


Malt Extract. 


I -OOO 


o-ooo 


I -024 


6 -ooo 


1-048 


II-809 


I'OOI 


0-250 


I-025 


6-244 


I -049 


I2-047 


1-002 


0-500 


I-026 


6-488 


I-050 


I2-285 


I-003 


0-750 


I'027 


6-731 


I-05I 


I2-523 


I-004 


1 -ooo 


1-028 


6-975 


I-052 


12*761 


I-005 


1-250 


I-029 


7-219 


I-OS3 


I3-000 


1*006 


1-500 


I-030 


7*463 


1*054 


13-238 


1*007 


1-750 


I-03I 


7-706 


I*055 


I3-476 


i*oo8 


2 'OOO 


I-032 


7-95o 


1-056 


I3-7I4 


1*009 


2-250 


I -033 


8-195 


I*057 


I3-952 


I*OIO 


2*5CO 


1*034 


8-438 


I.058 


I4*I90 


I*OII 


2-750 


I -035 


8*68i 


1-059 


14*428 


I*OI2 


3*000 


1*036 


8*925 


i'o6o 


14*666 


1*013 


3-250 


1*037 


9*170 


i*o6i 


I4*904 


1*014 


3*500 


I-0 3 8 


9-4I3 


1*062 


15-139 


1*015 


3-75o 


I -039 


9*657 


1*063 


15*371 


I'OIO 


4 -ooo 


1*040 


9*901 


1*064 


15*604 


1*017 


4-250 


I-04I 


10*142 


1*065 


15*837 


1*018 


4*500 


1*042 


10*381 


i-o66 


l6*070 


1-019 


4*750 


I '043 


10*619 


1*067 


l6*302 


i- 020 


5* 000 


I -044 


10-857 


i* 068 


16*534 


I-02I 


5*250 


I -045 


11*095 


1*069 


16*767 


1*022 


5*500 


1-046 


ii*333 


1-070 


17-000 


I-023 


5*750 


I -047 


11-595 







The sugar contained in beer is best determined by 
taking 50 c.c. of the sample, adding 10 c.c. of plumbic basic 
acetate solution, and making the volume of the mixture 

* The albuminoids in beer may be estimated by diluting 1 c.c. of 
the sample with water and then submitting it to Wanklyn's process 
for water analysis (see p. 211). The albuminoid ammonia thus 
obtained, multiplied by 5*2, gives the proteids in the beer taken. 



I46 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

up to 300 c.c. with distilled water. After standing for 
some time the solution is passed through a dry filter. It 
is then examined by cautiously adding it from a burette to 
10 c.c. of Fehling's solution (diluted with 40 c.c. of distilled 
water and brought to the boiling-point), until the blue 
colour of the latter disappears (see p. in). It should be 
borne in mind that, while 10 c.c. of Fehling's solution 
are reduced by 0*05 gramme of glucose, it requires 
0*075 gramme of maltose to effect the same reduction. 

In order to estimate the dextrine, 10 c.c. of the beer are 
reduced by evaporation to about 4 c.c, and heated with 
I c.c. of dilute sulphuric acid to no° by means of an oil- 
bath in a strong hermetically closed glass tube for five 
hours. At the completion of this operation the solution is 
neutralised with sodium hydroxide, diluted, and the total 
glucose determined by Fehling's reagent, as just described. 
The glucose due to the conversion of the dextrine is found 
by deducting the amount of maltose (expressed in terms 
of glucose) previously obtained from the total glucose ; 
10 parts of glucose represent 9 parts of dextrine. 

The organic acids (acetic and lactic) are estimated as 
follows : — (a) Acetic acid, by distilling 100 c.c. of the sample 
almost to dryness, and titrating the distillate with deci- 
normal soda solution ; (b) Lactic acid, by dissolving the 
residue remaining after the distillation in water, and either 
determining its acidity by decinormal soda, or by treating 
the residue with water and a little sulphuric acid, adding 
barium carbonate to the mixture, heating in the water-bath 
and filtering, the precipitate being thoroughly washed with 
hot water. The filtrate is then concentrated to a syrup by 
evaporation, and agitated in a test-tube with a mixture of 
1 part each of sulphuric acid, alcohol, and water, and 
10 parts of ether. After standing at rest for some time, 
the ethereal solution is separated by means of a pipette and 
evaporated to dryness in a tared capsule. The residue 
(impure lactic acid) can be weighed, or it is dissolved in 



BEER. 147 

water, the solution treated with zinc carbonate, and the 
lactic acid determined as zinc lactate, which contains 
54 -5 per cent, of the anhydrous acid. 

Phosphoric acid may be estimated in the beer directly 
by first expelling the carbonic acid, then adding a small 
quantity of potassium acetate, heating, and titrating with a 
standard solution of uranium acetate, using potassium 
ferrocyanide as the indicator. It can also be determined 
gravimetrically in the ash. 

The estimation of the ash is made by evaporating 
100 c.c. of the sample in a weighed platinum dish to dry- 
ness, and incinerating the residue at a rather moderate 
heat, so as to avoid volatilisation of the chlorides. The 
amount of ash in normal beer should never exceed o ■ 5 per 
cent., the usual proportion being about o • 3 per cent. ; this 
would naturally be increased by the addition of sodium 
bicarbonate or sodium chloride to the beer. The complete 
analysis of the ash is seldom necessary, but it is often of 
importance to estimate the amount of sodium chloride con- 
tained. This is effected by dissolving the ash-residue in 
distilled water and precipitating the chlorine from an 
aliquot portion of the solution by silver nitrate ; one part 
of the precipitate obtained represents o '409 part of common 
salt. The proportion of sodium chloride in pure beer is 
very inconsiderable, but it may be added to the beverage 
either to improve the flavour or to create thirst. For the 
determination of phosphoric acid, a weighed portion of the 
ash is dissolved in nitric acid, the solution evaporated to 
dryness, and the residue boiled with water containing a 
little nitric acid. It is then filtered, concentrated by 
evaporation, an excess of ammonium molybdate solution 
added, and the mixture set aside for about ten hours, 
after which the precipitate formed is separated by filtration 
and dissolved in ammonium hydroxide. A solution of 
magnesium sulphate (mixed with a considerable quantity 
of ammonium chloride) is now added, and the precipitated 

L 2 



148 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

ammonio-magnesium phosphate collected, washed, ignited, 
and weighed. 100 parts of this precipitate contain 64 parts 
of phosphoric anhydride (P 2 5 ). 

The positive detection of the presence of artificial sub- 
stitutes for malt in beer is a matter of considerable difficulty. 
According to Haarstick, a large proportion of commercial 
glucose contains a substance termed amylin, which exerts 
a strong dextro-rotary effect upon polarised light, but is 
not destroyed by fermentation, and upon these facts is 
based a process for the identification of starch-sugar in 
beer. It is executed by evaporating 1 litre of the sample 
to the consistency of a syrup and separating the dextrine 
present by the gradual addition of 95 per cent, alcohol * 
After standing at rest for several hours the liquid is filtered, 
the greater portion of the alcohol removed from the filtrate 
by distillation, and the residual fluid evaporated to dryness 
over the water-bath. The solid residue is then diluted to 
about a litre, yeast added, and the sugar present decom- 
posed by allowing fermentation to take place for three or 
four days, at a temperature of 20° It was found that, 
under these conditions, pure beer afforded a solution which 
was optically inactive when examined by the polariscope, 
while beer prepared from artificial glucose gave a solution 
possessing decided dextro-rotary power. The use of rice 
and glucose in the manufacture of beer is also indicated 
when there is a deficiency in the proportion of phosphoric 
acid in the ash, and of the extract, which applies, although 
to a somewhat less extent, if wheat or corn meal has been 
substituted for barley malt. 

The following conclusions were reached by a commission 
of chemists appointed in Germany to determine standards 
for beer : — A fixed relation between the quantity of alcohol 
and extract in beer does not invariably exist. As a rule 
in Bavarian and lager beer, for 1 part by weight of alcohol 

* The dextrine can also be removed by subjecting the beer to 
dialysis (see p. 183). 



BEER. I49 

a maximum of 2 parts and a minimum of 1 * 5 parts of 
extract should be present. In case malt has been replaced 
by glucose, or other non-nitrogenous substances, the per- 
centage of nitrogen in the extract will fall below 0*65. 
The acidity should not exceed 3 c.c. of normal alkali solu- 
tion for 100 c.c. of beer. The ash should not exceed 0*3 
per cent. The maximum proportion of glycerine should 
not exceed 0*25 per cent. For clarification, the following 
means are permissible : Filtration, the use of shavings, etc., 
and of isinglass or other forms of gelatine ; for preservation, 
carbonic acid gas, and salicylic acid may be employed — 
the latter, however, only in beer which is intended for 
exportation to countries where its use is not prohibited. 

Several samples of so-called "beer preservatives" ex- 
amined by the author, consisted of a solution of sodium 
salicylate and borax, dissolved in glycerine. Salicylic acid 
is employed in order to prevent fermentation in beer, which 
is exposed to great variations in temperature. Its presence 
is detected by the following process, suggested by Rose,* 
which is equally applicable to wine : — The beer (or wine) 
is acidulated with sulphuric acid, and well shaken with 
its own volume of a mixture of equal parts of ether and 
petroleum naphtha. After standing at rest, the ethereal 
layer is removed by a pipette, and evaporated or distilled 
until reduced to a few c.c. A little water and a few drops 
of a dilute ferric chloride solution are then added, and the 
liquid filtered : in presence of salicylic acid, the filtrate 
will exhibit a violet colour. In the case of wines, where 
the presence of tannic acid might interfere with the 
salicylic acid reaction, the filtrate is re-acidulated, then 
diluted, and the treatment with the ether mixture and 
iron chloride repeated. The second residue will now show 
the violet coloration, even in wines rich in tannin, and 
containing but o * 2 milligramme of salicylic acid per litre. 
The tannin can also be removed by precipitation with 
* Chem. Centralb., 1886, p. 412. 



150 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

gelatine, and the colour test for salicylic acid subse- 
quently applied. Glycerine is likewise sometimes used as 
a preservative of beer, and is also added to render the 
liquor richer in appearance, by communicating a viscosity 
to the froth which causes it to adhere longer to the sides of 
the glass. It can be quantitatively estimated by evapo- 
rating 100 c.c. of the sample in a capsule at a temperature 
of 75 , until the carbonic acid has been expelled, then adding 
about 5 grammes of magnesium hydroxide, and thoroughly 
stirring the mixture until it forms a homogeneous, semifluid 
mass. The contents of the dish are allowed to cool, and 
are then well digested with 50 c.c. of absolute alcohol, and 
the fluid portion afterwards separated by decantation, the 
residual mass being again treated with 20 c.c. of absolute 
alcohol, and the alcoholic solution thus obtained added to 
the first. The malose, parapeptone, etc., present in the 
solution are now precipitated by adding (with constant 
stirring) 300 c.c. of anhydrous ether, after which the liquid 
is filtered, and the filtrate concentrated, at first by spon- 
taneous evaporation, subsequently by heating over the 
water-bath, until it assumes the consistency of a syrup, 
when it is placed in an exsiccator which connects with an 
air-pump, where it is allowed to remain for twenty-four 
hours. The syrupy residue is then digested with 20 c.c. 
of absolute alcohol and filtered, the filtrate being collected 
in a tared capsule, which is again exposed to the heat of 
the water-bath, and allowed to, remain in the exsiccator for 
twelve hours, after which it is weighed. The increase in 
weight gives approximately the amount of glycerine con- 
tained in the beer examined.* 

It is certain that many of the poisonous substances 
which in former times have been detected in beer, such as 
strychnine, hyoscyamine, picric acid, and picrotoxine, are 
not used at present. It is much more probable that such 
bitters as gentian and quassia may be met with, especially 

* Griessmayer ; Corresp. Bktt. d. Ver. Anal. Chem. No. 4, Feb. 1880. 



BEER. 1 5 I 

at times when hops are dear. These latter far exceed 
hops in bitterness, and do not exert deleterious effects upon 
health. Willow bark, or its active principle, salicine, has 
also been employed. The detection of some of the most 
apocryphal substitutes for hops is effected, according to 
Wiltstein,* by the following method : One litre of the beer 
is concentrated over the water-bath to a syrupy liquor, 
which is introduced into a rather capacious tared cylinder 
and weighed. The gum, dextrine, and mineral salts are 
first separated by adding to the syrup five times its weight 
of 95 per cent, alcohol, with which it is thoroughly mixed, 
and. allowed to digest for twenty-four hours. The clear, 
supernatant solution is now drawn off, and the residue 
treated with a fresh quantity of alcohol, which is afterwards 
united with the solution first obtained, the whole being 
then evaporated until the alcohol is expelled. A small 
portion of the residue is dissolved in a little water, and 
tested for picric acid, as described later on. The remainder 
is repeatedly shaken with about six times its weight of pure 
benzol, which is subsequently removed by decantation, the 
operation being then repeated with fresh benzol, the two 
solutions added and evaporated to dryness at a very 
moderate temperature. The residue thus obtained is 
divided into three portions, which are placed in small 
porcelain dishes and tested as follows : — 

To one portion a little nitric acid (sp. gr. 1*330) is 
added ; if a red coloration ensues, brucine is present ; if a 
violet colour, colchicine. A second portion is treated with 
concentrated sulphuric acid ; the production of a red colour 
indicates the presence of colocynthine. To a third portion, 
a few fragments of potassium dichromate and a little sul- 
phuric acid are added ; if a purple-violet coloration takes 
place, strychnine is present. 

The portion of the syrup which has remained undis- 
solved by benzol is first dried over the water-bath, and 

* Archiv. der Pharm., Jan. 1876. 



152 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

then agitated with pure amylic alcohol, by which treatment 
picrotoxine and aloes, if present, will go in solution, and 
impart a bitter taste to the liquid. 

The solution can be examined as subsequently directed 
for picrotoxine ; the presence of aloes is best recognised by 
the characteristic saffron-like odour possessed by this body. 
The syrup which remains after the successive treatments 
with benzol and amylic alcohol is next freed from any 
remaining traces of the latter compound by means of blot- 
ting-paper, and then thoroughly agitated with anhydrous 
ether, which is afterwards removed and allowed to spon- 
taneously evaporate. If the residue now obtained exhibits 
a wormwood-like aroma, and gives a reddish yellow solu- 
tion, which rapidly changes to a deep blue when treated 
with concentrated sulphuric acid, absinthine is present. The 
syrup insoluble in ether may still contain quassine, genti- 
picrine, and menyanthine, and the presence of any of these 
bodies is indicated if it possesses a bitter taste, since the 
bitter principle of hops would have been removed by the 
foregoing treatment with solvents. The syrup is dissolved 
in a little warm water, the solution filtered and divided 
into two portions. To one a concentrated ammoniacal 
solution of silver nitrate is added, and the mixture heated : 
if it remains clear, quassine is probably present ; the forma- 
tion of a metallic mirror points to the presence of either 
gentipicrine or menyanthine. A second portion of the 
aqueous solution is cautiously evaporated in a small 
porcelain capsule, and a few drops of strong sulphuric acid 
are added to the residue : if no change takes place in 
the cold, but upon applying heat a carmine-red coloration 
appears, gentipicrine is present ; if a yellowish brown colour, 
which afterwards changes to a violet, is produced, the 
presence of menyanthine is probable.* 

* A comprehensive scheme for the detection of foreign bitters in 
beer, suggested by DragendorfT, will be found in the Archiv. der 
Pharm. [3] iii. 295 ; iv. 389. 



BEER. 153 

Picric acid can be detected by means of the following 
tests : — 

1. Upon shaking pure beer with animal charcoal, it 
becomes decolorised, whereas beer containing picric acid 
retains a lemon-yellow colour after this treatment. 

2. The bitter taste of normal beer is removed by treat- 
ment with a little plumbic diacetate and filtering, which 
is not the case with the flavour imparted by the use of 
picric acid. 

3. Unbleached wool or pure flannel will acquire a 
decided yellow colour if boiled for a short time in beer 
adulterated with picric acid, and afterwards washed. 

4. Upon agitating 20 c.c. of the suspected beer in a test- 
tube with 10 c.c. of amy lie alcohol, allowing the mixture 
to remain at rest, and then removing the amylic alcohol, a 
solution is obtained which contains any picric acid present 
in the sample treated. It is evaporated to dryness, the 
residue dissolved in a little warm distilled water, and the 
aqueous solution submitted to the following tests : — 

(a). To one portion a concentrated solution of potassium 
cyanide is added; in presence of picric acid, a blood-red 
colour is produced, due to the formation of iso-purpuric acid. 

(b) A second portion is treated with a solution of cupric- 
ammonium sulphate ; if picric acid be present, minute 
greenish crystals of cupric-ammonium picrate will be 
formed. 

(c) To a third portion, a little ammonium sulphide, con- 
taining free ammonium hydroxide, is added ; in presence 
of picric acid, picramic acid is produced, the formation of 
which is accelerated by the application of heat, and is made 
evident by the appearance of an intensely red colour. 

The detection of cocculus indicus, or its poisonous alkaloid, 
picrotoxine, may be effected by first agitating the beer with 
plumbic acetate, filtering, removing the lead from the fil- 
trate by means of sulphuretted hydrogen, and again 
filtering. The filtrate is first boiled, then carefully evapo- 



154 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

rated until it possesses a thickish consistency, when it is 
shaken up with animal charcoal, which is afterwards 
brought upon a filter, washed with a very little cold 
water, and dried at ioo°. The picrotoxine possibly present 
is then extracted from the animal charcoal by boiling it 
with strong alcohol, from which the alkaloid separates on 
evaporating the solution, either in quadrilateral prisms 
or in feathery tufts. 

Again reverting to beer adulteration, Prof. H. B. Cornwall 
has lately made an interesting report in this regard.* 
Several years ago, in reply to a circular issued by the 
"Business Men's Moderation Society of New York City," 
the "Association of United Lager Beer Brewers" asserted 
that the only substitutes for barley malt employed were 
corn starch, corn meal, rice, glucose, and grape sugar, no 
artificial bitters being used. The addition of glucose and 
grape sugar, the association stated, was not necessarily on 
account of economy, but had for its object an increase in 
the strength of the wort, without resorting to concentration 
and the production of beer of desirable flavour and colour. 
Rudlingerf denies that beer is subjected to injurious adul- 
teration in Germany. He states substantially as follows :. 
"Cases of sickness, frequently claimed to be caused by 
the beer, are due either to excess or to the consumption of 
the new and incompletely fermented beverage. It has been 
affirmed that brewers often economise in hops by the use 
of other and deleterious bitters, and that picric acid and 
strychnine have been employed for this purpose. Non- 
sense, once written, is frequently copied by hundreds, and 
in this way circulates among the masses. The maximum 
amount of hops used in beer is really inconsiderable, and, 
there exists no necessity for resorting to foreign sub- 
stitutes, even in seasons when the price of hops is abnor- 
mally high, since the proportion of this ingredient could 

* Reports of Am. Health Assoc, vol. x. 
f { Bierbrauerei,'i876. 



BEER. I55 

be slightly decreased without incurring the danger of detec- 
tion which would follow the use of artificial bitters." On 
the other hand, it is certain that, in past years, such in- 
jurious additions as cocculus indicus, picric acid, aloes, etc., 
have actually been discovered by chemists of high standing 
in bitter ale and other forms of beer. A. Schmidt,* asserts 
that glycerine, alum, and sodium bicarbonate are added to 
beer, and states that beer, poor in extractive and alcoholic 
constituents, is liable to become sour, a defect which is 
remedied by the use of alkalies and chalk, the resulting 
disagreeable taste being disguised by means of glycerine. 
The same authority deprecates the use of glucose on 
account of the absence of nutritious albuminoids and phos- 
phates in this substance. It would certainly appear obvious 
that the direct addition of starch-sugar to the wort, which 
results in augmenting the alcoholic strength of beer without 
correspondingly increasing the proportion of valuable ex- 
tractive matter, is of doubtful propriety. Grains are less 
open to this objection. Of these, maize is generally re- 
garded as the best substitute for barley malt, both on 
account of its similarity in composition and its cheapness. 
The International Congress of Medical Sciences, held at 
Brussels in 1875, adopted the following resolutions: — 

1. Genuine beer should be made from grain and hops. 

2. No other substances should replace these, either 
wholly or partially. 

3. All substitutes should be considered as adulterations, 
and should come under the penalty of the law, even if not 
deleterious to health. 

The German Brewers' Association, at its Frankfort 
meeting, defined wholesome beer as the produce of malt, 
hops, yeast, and water with a partial substitution of the 
malt by starch meal, rice, maize, and glucose, and regarded 
the use of some malt substitutes as permissible on scientific 
and hygienic grounds. It recommended, however, that, 
* Archiv. der Pharm., xii. 392. 



156 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

in case such substitutes are employed, the beer so pre- 
pared should be designated by a distinctive name, such 
as " rice beer," " sugar beer," etc. 

The darker varieties of beer are sometimes artificially 
coloured by the addition of caramel, and, although the 
result reached is virtually the same as that caused by the 
over-roasting of malt, the practice is prohibited in Germany 
unless the product is designated as " coloured beer." * 
According to Guyot, some of the Bavarian beer sold in 
Paris is coloured with methyl orange.f Licorice is em- 
ployed in beer brewing in Germany, both on account of 
its sweetening power and for clarifying purposes. 

In regard to the use of artificial preservatives, such 
as salicylic acid and sodium bisulphite, it is very pro- 
bable that articles of food which have been treated with 
these preparations are not readily digested. Their use, 
moreover, should be unnecessary, if due care has been 
exercised in the manufacture of the beer. This is especially 
applicable to beer intended for home consumption. 

* Deutsch. Reichsanzeiger, July 31, 1885. 
t Rupert, de Pharm., xii. p. 513. 



( 157 ) 



WINE. 

Wine is the fermented juice of the grape of Vitis vinifera. 
In its preparation, the fully matured grapes are usually 
(but not always) first separated from the stalks, and then 
crushed, the marc so obtained being afterwards placed in 
butts provided with perforated sides, through which the 
expressed juice or must percolates. It is next introduced 
into vats, and allowed to undergo a process of fermenta- 
tion, which is very analogous to that of beer wort. The 
addition of yeast is, however, in this case unnecessary, as 
the fermentation of grape-juice is spontaneous, it being due 
to the generation of the fungus Penicillium glaucum, which 
is the product of the action of atmospheric germs upon 
the albuminoid matters contained in the must. The most 
important constituents of grape-juice are glucose (10 to 30 
per cent.), organic acids (0*3 to 1*5 per cent), and albu- 
minous substances. During the fermentation the glucose 
is converted into alcohol and carbonic acid, the latter being 
evolved in bubbles ; a deposit of potassium bitartrate and 
yeast-cells, forming the lees, likewise occurring. This first 
fermentation ceases after the lapse of several days, the 
period being indicated by the cessation of escaping gas. 
In order to prevent the oxidation of the alcohol to acetic 
acid, the liquid is removed from the lees and transferred 
into casks, in which a slow after-fermentation and a further 
separation of potassium bitartrate take place. The wine 
is subsequently stored for a considerable time in fresh 



158 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

casks, during which it " ages," and acquires its charac- 
teristic flavour. 

The more common varieties of wine are classified ac- 
cording to the country of their production — into French 
(claret, burgundy, champagne, etc.), German (Rhine), 
Spanish (sherry and port), and Italian. 

The production of American wine has experienced a 
noteworthy increase during the past twenty-five years. 
While, in i860, less than two millions of gallons of native 
wine were consumed in the United States, in the year 
1884 the quantity used exceeded seventeen millions of 
gallons.* Aside from the general distinction of red and 
white, wines are classified by their characteristic properties, 
as dry, sweet, and cordial. In dry wines, such as those of 
the Gironde and Rhenish districts, considerable free acid, 
and but little or no sugar are contained, whereas in sweet 
wines (Madeira, port, etc.) a certain proportion of the 
sugar remains undecomposed. Cordial wines are distin- 
guished by their sweetness and comparatively heavy body. 
The nature of wines is materially affected by the proportion 
of glucose and acids contained in the original must, as 
well as by the environments of their manufacture, such 
as climate and temperature. From a chemical point of 
view, the most important constituents of wine are the 
primary products of fermentation — alcohol, succinic acid, 
and glycerine, but its market value is far more dependent 
upon the flavour and bouquet, which are chiefly due to the 
formation of secondary products, usually included under 
the name " oenanthic ether," and consisting of the ethers 
of caproic, caprylic, and other organic acids. 

The following table exhibits the constituents of some 
of the best known varieties of wine, according to results 
obtained by different authorities : — 

* During the year 1886 the total production of Californian wine 
approximated 19I million gallons, of which 3f million gallons were 
consumed in the manufacture of brandy, and 5 million gallons 
exported. 



WINE. 



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bo b b -I b b b b 


a 
f 


a 

8 


French (red) * 
French (white) 
Vin Ordinaire 
St. Julien (1858) .. 

Frousac 

Champagne 
Rhenish * 
Riidesheimer .. 
Alsatian * 
Wiirtemberg .. 

Sherry * 

Port* 

Madeira* 
Marsala* 
Red Voeslauer 
Lachryma Christi.. 
White Capri .. 

Cyprus 

Greek* 

Hungarian* .. 



<u 




a 








£ 




<v 




^ 




U-, 














u 














•H 




a 








-d 




cu 




Fi 








a 




+-> 




n 


'd 





t/1 


ro 


(/) 




aj 


n 


!-H 


<u 


u, 




X 


nd 


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i6o 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 



Two varieties of Californian wine, examined by J. L. 
de Fremery,* had the following composition : — 



Grammes in 100 c.c. 

Alcohol 

Extract .. .. 
Mineral matter 
Volatile acids (as acetic) 
Fixed acids (as tartaric) 
Potassium bitartrate 

Free tartaric acid 

Other free acids (as tartaric) .. 

Sulphuric acid 

Phosphoric acid 

Chlorine 

Lime 

Magnesia .. 

Glycerine 

Sugar 

Polarisation 

Succinic acid 

Malic acid 



Gutedel (White). 



io'45 
2*0908 
0-1978 
0*0804 
0-4845 
0-1579 
0-0060 
0-5850 
0-0384 

0*0220 
O-O036 
0*0056 
0-0I70 
0*6133 
0-0165 
•+@*2 

0-0068 

0-0324 



Zinfandel (Red). 



9-8o 

2-I270 

0'22l8 

CO972 

0*4II0 

0*I428 

0*5325 

0*0168 
0-0193 
0-0054 
0*0084 
0-0160 

0-5647 
0*0276 

0*0097 
0*0922 



According to analyses made by R. Fresenius and 
R. Borgmann,f natural wine has the following average 
composition : — 

Grammes in 100 c.c. 

Alcohol „ 7-71 

Extract 2*75 

Free acids 0-73 

Mineral matter 0*23 

Glycerine 0-79 

Sulphuric acid 0*038 

Phosphoric acid 0*040 

Lime 0*018 

Magnesia o # oi8 

Potassa 0*092 

Chlorine 0-004 

Potassium bitartrate .. 0*200 



Natural wines are frequently subjected to various pro- 
cesses of treatment, designed to remedy certain defects 

* Berichte der Deutsch. Chem. Gesell., 1885, p. 426. 
t Zeit. f. Anal. Chem., 1885, p. 44. 



WINE. l6l 

existing in the original must. While these do not, perhaps, 
all properly come under the head of adulteration, it is 
certain that many of the practices resorted to affect the 
dietetic quality of the wine in a deleterious manner. The 
most common modes of treatment, generally considered 
harmless, are the following : — 

Pasteuring, which consists essentially in heating the 
wine to 6o°, with a limited supply of air, and effects the 
artificial ageing and better conservation of the product. 
Wines which exhibit ropiness and other diseases are 
restored by destroying the fungi present. This is 
accomplished by subjecting the well-filled and corked 
bottles to a temperature of from 45 to ioo° for several 
hours. 

A process of freezing is likewise employed for the 
improvement of wine. It results in the removal of much 
of the cream of tartar, colouring matter, and nitrogenous 
substances contained, and also causes an increase in 
the alcoholic strength of the wine, thereby considerably 
decreasing its tendency to undergo an after-fermentation. 

The proportions of sugar and acid best adapted to the 
production of wine of good quality are at least 20 per cent, 
of the former to not more than o * 5 per cent, of the latter. 
As these conditions do not always obtain in grape-juice, 
artificial methods are employed to supply the necessary 
constituents. Of these, the most rational consists in 
diluting the must until the amount of acid is reduced to 
o * 5 per cent, and increasing the sugar to a proportion of 
20 per cent, by the addition of glucose. In a somewhat 
similar process, due to Petiot, the marc is repeatedly mixed 
with water containing 20 per cent, of sugar, and then sub- 
jected to fermentation. In other methods, the removal 
of the excess of free acid is effected by neutralisation 
with pulverised marble or neutral potassium tartrate. The 
use of these agents results in the formation and sub- 
sequent separation of insoluble salts — in the latter case, of 

M 



162 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 



potassium bitartrate. Another process for the improvement 
and preservation of natural wine, proposed by Scheele, 
consists in the addition of glycerine, in a maximum pro- 
protion of 3 per cent, after the first fermentation has taken 
place. 

R. Kayser* has made a very exhaustive investigation 
of wine-must of different sources, and of the wine prepared 
therefrom, both in its natural state and after having been 
subjected to various "processes of improvement." The 
following table shows the results obtained from the analysis 
of Franken must and wine (both natural and ft improved "), 
made from Riessling grapes in 1880 : — 











3 


o> 




T3 . 

%%3 






1 


2$ 


O 3 




*6 


» ; a 

8 «"* 






1 

1 


IS 


**« 


0) 
M 
V 

a 
s 


3 u bfl 

M 2 




per cent. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


Alcohol 


.. 


6'6o 


12*20 


9* 10 


6*6o 


6*70 


10*40 


Extract 


I7-87 


2*53 


2*11 


5-91 


2*19 


2*80 


1-98 


Ash 


0*33 


0*26 


O'lO 


0*17 


0*28 


0*29 


0*16 


Sulphuric acid .. 


O'OIO 


0-006 


0'002 


O'OIO 


0*006 


0*077 


0-002 


Phosphoric acid. 


0*031 


0-024 


0-020 


O*02I 


0-023 


0-025 


0*017 


Lime 


0*012 


0*009 


0*007 


0*018 


0-027 


0-039 


0*006 


Magnesia .. 


0*012 


O'OII 


0-OI2 


0-009 


0*OI2 


0'0I2 


0*008 


Free acid (as tar- 
taric) 
Total tartaric acid 


I-36S 


1*275 


0*765 


0*802 


o*66o 


1*297 


0*488 


0'50I 


0*342 


0*120 


0*140 


0*014 


0*260 


0*150 


Free tartaric acid 


0*l88 


0*OI2 


., 




, , 


0-160 


.. 


Malic. acid.. 


0-720 


0-7I5 


0*400 


0-388 


0-710 


0*716 


0*165 


Succinic acid .. 


.. 


OTIO 


0-140 


0*114 


0'II2 


o-ioi 


0*127 


Glycerine 


.. 


0-650 


I-I50 


o*8oo 


o'6oo 


0-700 


0-900 


Sugar 


13-90 


0-210 


0-180 


0-340 


0*200 


0-180 


0-300 


Potassa 


0-156 


Q-II7 


0*051 


o*o8i 


0*134 


0*127 


0*093 



Magnier de la Source f has recently made some investi- 
gations concerning the difference in chemical composition 

* Repert Anal. Chem., 1882, ii., p. 1. 
t * Comptes Rendus,' xcviii. p. no. 



WINE. 163 

of natural and plastered wine ; he gives the following con- 
stituents of 1 litre of wine : — 



Tartar 

Sulphuric acid 

Potassium 

Calcium (in soluble portion of ash) 
Calcium (in insoluble portion of ash) 



Natural. 



Plastered. 



gr- 


gr- 


i -94 


O 


2*58 


3-10 


1*12 


2*46 


O 


0-037 


0*179 


0*151 



Adulteration of Wine. — Although there may be some 
question in regard to the moral status of the foregoing 
methods of improvement of natural wine, numerous other 
practices are resorted to concerning which no doubt can 
exist. The more common forms of wine adulteration in- 
clude plastering, sulphuring, fortification, blending, flavour- 
ing, colouring, and the manufacture of fictitious imita- 
tions. 

The "plastering" of wines consists in the addition of 
plaster of Paris (often mixed with lime), either to the 
unpressed grapes or to the must. The process, which is 
rather hypothetically claimed to aid in the preservation of 
the wine and correct any excessive acidity, is very objec- 
tionable, in that it determines the formation of free sul- 
phuric acid and acid sulphates, as well as of calcium 
tartrate and potassium sulphate. The lime salt, being 
insoluble, is deposited with the lees ; the potassium sulphate, 
however, remains in solution, and as it exerts a decided 
purgative effect, its presence in wine cannot fail to be 
detrimental. In France, the sale of wine containing over 
0*2 per cent, of potassium sulphate is prohibited. The 
plastering of wine is chiefly carried on in Spain, Portugal, 
and southern France. The ash of pure wine does not 
exceed o ■ 3 per cent, but in the samples of sherry usually 
met with it reaches a proportion of o • 5 per cent, and is 
almost entirely composed of sulphates. The "sulphur- 

M 2 



164 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

ing !' of wines is also extensively practised. It is effected 
either by burning sulphur in the casks or by conducting 
sulphurous acid through the wine itself, the object sought 
being to preserve the product and impart to it the ripe- 
ness naturally acquired by age. Sulphured wines, while 
not necessarily showing an increase in the amount of 
ash, can often be recognised by the abnormally large 
proportion of sulphates present. 

The strength and preservative qualities of wine are 
frequently augmented by the addition to it of inferior 
sorts of brandy. Port wine usually receives an addition 
of about 30 per cent., and sherry is invariably fortified, if 
not to so great an extent. By the Customs regulations 
in England, 10 per cent, of brandy is allowed to be 
added to wines in bond, while, in France, the sophistica- 
tion is equally permitted in wines intended for export, 
provided the total amount of alcohol in the fortified 
article does not exceed 21 per cent. 

Doubtless the mixing or blending of wines constitutes 
the most frequent form of their sophistication. Natural 
wines of the same manufacture vary to some extent from 
year to year in colour, flavour, and other characteristic 
properties, and mixing is resorted to in order to supply 
the trade with a product always possessing nearly iden- 
tical qualities. In many cases, the flavour of wines is 
improved by blending, and their intoxicating effects are 
also increased, both results being due to the formation of 
compound ethers. Common instances of wine mixing are 
the addition of Hermitage and Rousillon wines to clarets ; 
of Malaga and Teneriffe to port ; of solaras (a mixture 
of Amontillado and Manzanilla) to sherry ; and of a liqueur 
composed of sugar, some kind of full, rich wine, and 
brandy, to champagne. The flavour and bouquet of ex- 
pensive wines are frequently imparted to inferior grades 
by the addition of various substances, among which are 
elderflowers, orris root, cherry water, essential oil of al- 



WINE. 165 

monds, sweet briar, and numerous perfumes, such as orange- 
flower water, neroli, essence de petit grain, violet petals, etc. 
The tincture of raisin seeds is said to communicate a 
genuine port flavour to poor wines, and a grain of amber- 
gris, triturated with a little sugar, is stated to impart a 
much esteemed bouquet to a hogshead of claret. Numer- 
ous tinctures, as those of strawberry root, raspberries, and 
walnuts, are likewise used. Sweet and liqueur wines are 
extensively imitated at Cette and Montpelier. The fol- 
lowing recipes* will serve to illustrate the general character 
of the mixtures employed : — 

For Lachryma Christi :— 

Bagnols (dry) 85 litres. 

Gum kino 50 grammes. 

Infusion of walnuts 1 litre. 

Syrup of raisins 6 litres. 

Alcohol (85 ) 8 „ 

For Madeira : — 

Picardan (dry) 60 litres. 

Tavel (old and strong) 25 „ 

Infusion of walnuts 2 „ 

Infusion of bitter almonds 2 „ 

Rock candy i| kilos. 

Brandy (58°) 10 litres. 

For Malaga : — 

Bagnols (old) 80 litres. 

Syrup of raisins 10 „ 

Infusion of walnuts 1 „ 

Alcohol (85°) 8 „ 

For Tokay :— 

Bagnols 80 litres. 

Syrup of raisins 10 „ 

Dried elder flowers 300 grammes. 

Infusion of white raspberries.. .. .. 2 kilos. 

„ „ walnuts. 1 kilo. 

Alcohol 6 litres. 

Port is frequently flavoured with a mixture of elderberry 
juice, grape juice, brown sugar, and crude brandy known 
as "Jerupiga." Sherry often consists of Cape wine mixed 

* Vide * Spon's Encyclopaedia.' 



l66 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

with honey, bitter almonds, and brandy. Astringency is 
conveyed to wines, deficient in this quality, by means of 
tannin ; and the property of forming a crust on the in- 
terior of the bottle is produced, especially in port, by the 
admixture of cream of tartar and gum. " Dryness " is 
also obtained by artificial methods. A preparation met 
with in the trade, and used for this purpose, has the fol- 
lowing composition : *— Per cent 

Glucose 28*72 

Glycerine , .. 38*40 

Tannin .. .. "* , 4* 10 

Dextrine 3*14 

Boracic acid 4*27 

Cream of tartar .. trace 

Moisture and ash .. .. .. .. 21*37 

100*00 

The colour of white wines is caused by the oxidation of 
the tannin present, but it is sometimes increased by the 
addition of the concentrated juice of highly - coloured 
grapes, or by means of a small proportion of caramel. The 
colour of natural red wine is due to the presence of oeno- 
cyanin, a bluish-black compound, chiefly contained in the 
grape skins, which is insoluble in water, but dissolves in 
acidulated alcohol. In Spain and southern France, a wine 
prepared from a vine known as the Teinturier, and possess- 
ing an intense bluish*red colour, is extensively employed 
for colouring of wines. There appears to be no doubt but 
that elderberries, black cherries, mulberries, and hollyhock 
are also frequently used as colouring agents. Souberian f 
mentions a mixture, termed liqueur de fistnes, composed 
of elderberries, but also containing about 5 per cent, of 
alum, which is occasionally employed. The general use 
of several deleterious dyes, such as logwood, cochineal, 
and the aniline colours, is far more problematical. In re- 

* Jay, Bullet, de la Soc. Chim., xlii. p. 217. 
f Diet, des Falsifications. 



WINE. 167 

gard to the last-mentioned agents, it has, however, been 
asserted,* that in a commune near Beziers, of 1800 in- 
habitants, magenta, to the value of 30,000 francs, is annu- 
ally consumed in the adulteration of wine. 

It is also worthy of remark that an aniline preparation 
used in Spain for the artificial colouring of wine has recently 
been found to contain 1 • 62 per cent, of arsenic acid.f 

Owing to the ravages of the phylloxera, a very con- 
siderable decrease in the source of natural wines has taken 
place during the past few years. Between 1883 and 1884 
no less than 22 thousand acres of vineyards were entirely 
destroyed in the Gironde district alone, and it is stated, 
upon good authority, that the total production of wines 
in France in 1884 was 220 millions of gallons less than 
the average of the previous ten years.J There is no doubt 
but that this decrease has greatly stimulated the manu- 
facture of imitation wines. These occasionally contain a 
certain proportion of genuine wine as the basis, but more 
frequently they consist entirely of factitious constituents. 
The following recipe furnishes a fair example of those 
of the first class : — 

Rousillon wine 50 litres. 

Water 85 „ 

Common brandy 20 „ 

Vinegar I „ 

Tartaric acid ,. .. 300 grammes. 

Powdered orris .. 20 „ 

Wood charcoal 500 „ 

Agitate thoroughly, add the white of two eggs, with 
constant stirring ; allow to settle, and draw off. 

* * Les Mondes, Revue Hebd. des Sciences/ No. 4, 1876. 

f Bullet, de la Soc. de Chim., xlii. pp. 167 and 207. 

% Recent reports of the vintage in France for the year 1886, in- 
dicate that, while a decided improvement has been experienced in 
the Champagne, Burgundy, Herault, and Rousillon districts, this has 
failed to be the case in Charentes and Gironde, where the phylloxera 
has again seriously injured the crops. 



1 68 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 



Of late years, the production of wine from dried fruit has 
assumed very extensive proportions in France. The pro- 
duct, which is generally known as " vin de raisins sees? is 
claimed by its manufacturers to be wholesome.* A wine 
said to possess the qualities of a fair claret, is made by 
submitting to fermentation the following mixture : — 

White sugar 5 kilos. 

Raisins 5 „ 

Sodium chloride 125 grammes. 

Tartaric acid 200 „ 

Brandy 12 litres. 

Water 95 „ 

Gall nuts 20 grammes. 

Brewer's yeast 200 „ 

Another recipe for Bordeaux wine is : — 

Orris root 1 lb. 

Water 5 galls. 

Raspberry juice 1 „ 

Pure spirit 10 „ 

Essence of claret f lb. 

Sugar syrup 1 gall. 

Colour with cochineal. 

It is authentically stated that in the year 1881, 52 mil- 
lions of gallons of factitious claret wine were made in 
France, and the industry has certainly not diminished in 
extent since this date. It is a significant fact that the im- 
portation of Spanish raisins into France has undergone a 

* F. Schaffer (Zeits. Anal. Chem., xxiv. p. 559) has made the 
following analyses of artificial wine (grammes in 100 c.c.) : — 



Alcohol (by volume) . . 

Extract 9 .. 

Sugar 

Ash 

Acidity (as tartaric) 
Free tartaric acid 
Cream of tartar .. 
Sulphuric anhydride 
Phosphoric anhydride . . 




7*02 

1-797 
0*321 
0-160 
0-772 
traces 
0-471 

0*0172 



WINE. 169 

remarkable increase during the past few years. Nor is this 
species of sophistication confined to foreign wines. Estab- 
lishments are in active operation in New York City and 
elsewhere in this country, where imitations of Californian 
hock and claret are made from fermented infusions of dried 
fruit (often charged with salicylic acid), and offered for sale 
at less than thirty cents per gallon, with more than the 
usual trade discount * According to a reliable estimation, 
less than one-tenth of the wine sold as champagne is 
actually the product of that district, the remainder being 
fabricated from other wines or from cider. 

Analysis of Wine. — The analysis of wine comprises the 
following estimations : — Specific gravity, alcohol, extract, 
sugar, polarisation, glycerine, total free acids, volatile acids, 
free tartaric acid, potassium bitartrate, malic acid, suc- 
cinic acid, tannin, ethers, ash, chlorine, sulphuric and phos- 
phoric acids, and colouring matters. 

Specific gravity. — The density is determined by means 
of the gravity bottle, at a temperature of 1 5 . 

Alcohol.— The proportion of alcohol is ascertained by 
the distillation of 50 or 100 c.c. of the wine in a suitable 
flask, which is connected with a Liebig's condenser, until 
about half of the liquid has passed over. The distillate is 
made up to the original volume with water, and its specific 
gravity taken, from which the amount of alcohol (by 
weight) present is calulated by aid of the usual alcohol- 
metric tables (see p. 196). The result (as well as the pro- 
portions of the other constituents) is preferably stated in 
grammes per 100 c.c. of wine. The determination may 
also be made by first removing the alcohol by evaporation, 
adding distilled water to restore the original volume, and 
then estimating the density of the liquid (see under Beer, 
p. 142). In unfortified wines the alcoholic strength ranges 

* It is asserted by a prominent wine merchant in New York that 
the monthly production of two manufacturers of artificial wine in this 
city exceeds 30,000 gallons. 



170 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

from 6 to 12 per cent, and in wines which have received an 
addition of spirit, it may vary from 12 to 22 per cent. 

Extract— The. extract is conveniently determined by 
evaporating 50 c.c. (measured at 15 ), in a platinum dish 
over the water-bath, the residue being dried for 2\ hours 
in the steam-oven. In case a wine rich in sugar (contain- 
ing, say, over 0*5 grammes per 100 c.c.) is under examina- 
tion, 20 c.c. will suffice for the determination. The in- 
direct method used in the estimation of the malt extract 
in beer may also be employed. According to Girardin 
and Pressier, it is possible to detect the watering of certain 
wines, the average composition of which is known, by 
means of the proportions of extract and alcohol present. 
For example, in genuine Bordeaux wines the proportion of 
extract ranges from 20 to 20*8 grammes per 1000 c.c, 
and the amount of alcohol is also very constant, it being 
a mean of 100 grammes per 1000 c.c. Should a sample 
of Bordeaux wine show an extract of 14*5 grammes per 
litre, the proportion of genuine wine present would be 72 ■ 5 

■ 1000 X 14*5 ^ . , 

percent, for =725*00, the remainder being 

water and alcohol. In order to estimate the amount of 
spirits artificially added, the alcohol contained in 72 * 5 parts 
of the wine is determined. If, for instance, it is found to 
be 11 parts, then, (11 — 7*25 = ) 3*75 parts of alcohol 
have been added.* The quantity of extract in pure natural 
wine varies from 1*5 to 3 per cent., but in sweet and 
fortified wines, it may reach 10 per cent, or more. 

Sugar. — The sugar in wine consists of a mixture of fruit 
and grape sugar, usually in the proportion of 3 parts of the 
former to 1 part of the latter. The amount of sugar is best 
estimated by Fehling's solution (see p. in). In the case 
of white wines, it is advisable to employ 100 c.c. for the 
determination ; with sweet rich wines 25 c.c. are sufficient 
The alcohol is first removed by evaporation over the water- 
* Blyth, op. cit., p. 445. 



WINE. 171 

bath, and the diluted liquid is next decolorised by means 
of bone-black or plumbic acetate, filtered, and made 
alkaline by addition of sodium carbonate. It is then made 
up to a volume of 200 c.c. and gradually added to 10 c.c. of 
Fehling's solution. It is always well to test the wine by 
the polariscope, and, whenever the presence of cane sugar 
is indicated, to invert 100 c.c. of the sample by heating 
with a few drops of hydrochloric acid, and again make a 
sugar determination with Fehling's reagent after neutra- 
lisation with sodium carbonate. 

Polarisation. — The optical examination of wine is con- 
ducted by adding 20 c.c. of plumbic acetate solution to 
100 c.c. of the sample, shaking the mixture, allowing it to 
stand for a short time, and passing it through a filter. If 
necessary the filtrate is further decolorised with animal 
charcoal and again filtered. The polariscope tube is then 
filled with the clear solution and the reading made. The 
majority of wines exhibit a left-handed polarisation, which 
is due to the fact that, as a rule, the proportion of fruit 
sugar present predominates over that of grape sugar ; 
moreover, \ part of fruit sugar will neutralise the dextro- 
rotary action of 1 part of grape sugar. In case the presence 
of an excess of grape sugar is indicated by the polariscopic 
examination, it is often assumed that this body has been 
directly added to the wine. It sometimes occurs, however, 
that, in the fermentation process, more grape sugar remains 
undecomposed than fruit sugar, under which circumstances 
the preponderance of the former body in the resulting wine 
would not prove sophistication; but, under ordinary con- 
ditions, the presence of an excessive proportion of grape 
sugar may safely be regarded as strongly pointing to the 
artificial addition of must syrup. 

Glycerine, — 100 c.c. of the wine are reduced by evapora- 
tion on the water-bath to iocc, some pure sand added, 
and then milk of lime to decided alkaline reaction, after 
which the mixture is evaporated nearly to dryness. When 



172 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

cold, the residue is thoroughly agitated with 50 c.c. of 
96 per cent, alcohol, next heated to boiling on the water- 
bath, and then passed through a filter. The insoluble 
residue is repeatedly washed with more hot alcohol, the 
washings being added to the first filtrate. The solution is 
now evaporated until it assumes a viscous consistency. 
The residue is taken up with 10 c.c. of absolute alcohol, and 
1 5 c.c. of ether are added, the mixture being shaken and 
allowed to stand at rest in a well-stoppered flask until it 
becomes clear. The solution is subsequently filtered into 
a tared glass capsule, then carefully evaporated to a syrupy 
condition over the water-bath, and the residue dried in the 
steam-oven for one hour, and finally weighed. According 
to Pasteur, 112 '8 parts of grape sugar yield 3*6 parts of 
glycerine ; in natural wine, therefore, the glycerine should 
amount to about T x ¥ th part of the alcohol present. 

Acids. — The acids in wine consist of acetic, tartaric, 
malic, tannic, succinic, racemic, formic, and propionic. 

Total free A cids. — These are determined by titrating 10 c.c. 
of the sample with ^th normal soda solution, litmus paper 
or tincture of logwood being employed as the indicator. 
Wines containing free carbonic acid should be repeatedly 
well-shaken before making the estimation. The free acids 
are expressed in terms of tartaric acid (C 4 H 6 6 ). If 
sulphuric acid or potassium bisulphate is present, a piece 
of filter paper will be rendered brittle when immersed 
in the wine for some time, and afterwards cautiously 
dried. 

Volatile Acids. — The volatile acids are estimated by 
slowly evaporating 10 c.c. of the wine to the consistency of 
a syrup, and repeating the titration with ^.th normal alkali 
solution. The difference in acidity represents the propor- 
tion of volatile acids present, which is stated in terms of 
acetic acid (C 2 H 4 2 ). It is evident that the non-volatile 
acids can be calculated by deducting from the total 
amount of free acids, the tartaric acid corresponding to 



WINE. 173 

the acetic acid found. The proportion of volatile acid 
in genuine wine varies from 0*3 to o*6 per cent. Ac- 
cording to Dupre, in white wine, one-fourth of the total 
acidity should be due to volatile acids, and in fortified 
and red wine, they should not exceed a proportion of 
one-third. 

Free Tartaric Acid and Potassium Bitartrate. — In the 
presence of a small amount of free acids, the detec- 
tion of a considerable proportion of free tartaric acid 
may fairly be considered as strong evidence that the 
wine is artificial. Nessler recommends the following quali- 
tative test : — 20 c.c. of the sample are repeatedly shaken 
with a little freshly prepared and finely ground cream 
of tartar. After standing one hour, the solution is 
filtered, 3 or 4 drops of a 20 per cent, solution of potas- 
sium acetate are added, and the mixture is allowed to re- 
main at rest for twelve hours, when, in presence of free 
tartaric acid, a precipitation will take place. The quanti- 
tative estimation of free tartaric acid and potassium 
bitartrate is made by Berthelot's method, as follows : — 
Separate portions of the wine (20 c.c. each) are introduced 
into two flasks, a few drops of 20 per cent, solution of 
potassium acetate being added to the second flask. 200 c.c. 
of a mixture of equal parts of alcohol and ether are then 
added to both flasks, their contents repeatedly shaken and 
finally set aside for eighteen hours at a temperature between 
o° and io°. The separated precipitates are now removed by 
filtration, washed with the ether-alcohol mixture, and then 
titrated with ^th normal alkali solution. That formed in 
the first flask corresponds to the potassium bitartrate 
originally contained in the wine; the second represents 
the total tartaric acid present. The addition of a small 
quantity of clean sand will assist in the separation of the 
precipitates. 

Malic Acid. — A slight excess of lime-water is added to 
100 c.c. of the wine, and, after standing for some time the 



174 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

solution is filtered, concentrated by evaporation to one-half 
its original volume, and treated with an excess of absolute 
alcohol. The resulting precipitate (consisting of calcium 
malate and sulphate) is collected upon a filter, dried and 
then incinerated. The proportion of malic acid contained 
is now estimated by volumetrically determining the amount 
of calcium carbonate present by means of a normal acid 
solution : i part of calcium carbonate represents I ■ 34 parts 
of malic acid (C 4 H 6 5 ). 

Tannic Acid. — 10 c.c. of the sample are taken, the free 
acids present neutralised with normal alkali solution, and 
a few drops of concentrated sodium acetate solution (40 per 
cent.) added. A solution of ferric chloride (10 per cent.) 
is then added, drop by drop, carefully avoiding an excess. 
A single drop of the iron solution represents 0*05 per 
cent, of tannic acid. The method of tannin determination 
described under Tea (see p. 22) can also be applied. 

Succinic Acid. — 500 c.c. of the wine are decolorised with 
bone-black, filtered, the filtrate evaporated over the water- 
bath nearly to dryness, and the residue repeatedly treated 
with alcohol-ether. The solution thus obtained is concen- 
trated, carefully neutralised with lime-water, evaporated to 
dryness, and the glycerine present removed by washing 
with the alcohol-ether mixture. The remaining residue is 
now treated with 80 per cent, alcohol, in order to dissolve 
the calcium succinate contained, every 100 parts of which 
represent 75*64 parts of succinic acid (H 6 C 4 4 ). Thudi- 
chum and Dupre state that one litre of pure wine contains 
from 1 to 1*5 grammes of succinic acid. 

Ethers. — The compound ethers in wine are volatile 
and fixed, and exist in but minute proportions. Of the 
former class, ethylic acetate C 2 H3(C 2 H5)02 is the most 
important. As already mentioned, the aroma of wine is 
largely influenced by the presence of the ethers of the fatty 
acids, butyric, caprylic, etc. Dupre determines the propor- 
tion of both kinds of ethers indirectly as follows : — 250 c.c. of 



WINE. 175 

the wine are distilled until 200 c.c. have passed over. Water 
is then added to the distillate to a volume of 250 c.c. 100 c.c. 
are first titrated with -^th normal soda solution. Another 
100 c.c. of the distillate are next heated with a known 
quantity of alkali (by which the ethers are decomposed into 
their corresponding acids and alcohol), and the titration 
is repeated. The amount of volatile ethers is then calculated 
from the increased acidity shown by the second titration. 
In order to determine the proportion of fixed ethers, 500 c.c. 
of the sample are evaporated over the water-bath to a 
small volume which is made alkaline, and then subjected to 
distillation. The distillate is acidulated with sulphuric acid 
and again distilled. The alcohol present in the second dis- 
tillate is now oxidised to acetic acid by means of potassium 
dichromate, and the amount of this acid found estimated 
by titration. According to Berthelot, the proportion of ethers 
in genuine wine bears a fixed relation to the amounts of 
alcohol and acids present : he suggests the following formula 
for calculating the amount of alcohol contained in the 
compound ether of one litre of wine, when etherification is 
complete : — 

y = 117 A -f 2-8 

100 

where A is the percentage, by weight, of alcohol ; a the 
amount of alcohol equivalent to the total free acid in one 
litre of wine (assuming this to be acetic acid) ; y, the pro- 
portion per cent, of a present as compound ether in one 
litre of wine, when the alcoholic strength of the wine is A ; 
and x, the amount of alcohol present in the compound ether 
of one litre of wine. 

The Ash. — 100 c.c. of the wine are evaporated to dryness 
in a platinum dish, over the water-bath, and the residue is 
incinerated at a rather low temperature and weighed. By 
this process, the tartrates and malates contained in the wine 



176 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

are converted with carbonates. The ash of normal wine 
consists of potassium sulphate, carbonate, phosphate and 
chloride, sodium chloride, calcium carbonate, etc, but, in 
many samples, it will be found to be largely if not entirely 
composed of sulphates, which is due to the practice of sul- 
phuring and plastering.* Generally speaking, the pro- 
portion of ash in genuine wine ranges from 0*15 to 
0*30 per cent. 

Chlorine. — 100 c.c. of the sample are neutralised with 
sodium carbonate, evaporated to dryness, and the residue 
gently ignited. It is then extracted with boiling water, 
filtered, and the chlorine determined by means of silver 
nitrate, either volumetrically or gravimetrically. 

Sulphuric Acid. — 100 c.c. are acidulated with hydrochloric 
acid, the liquid heated to boiling, and the sulphuric acid 
precipitated by barium chloride. The precipitate is well 
washed, dried, and weighed. 100 parts represent 42*49 
parts H 2 S0 4 . Pure wine contains from 0*109 to 0*328 
gramme of monohydrated sulphuric acid per litre (corre- 
sponding to 0*194 to 0*583 gramme potassium sulphate). 
The presence of an excess of this maximum amount 
indicates that the wine has been plastered. 

Phosphoric Acid. — 100 c.c. of the wine are evaporated, 
the residue ignited, dissolved in a little water, acidulated 
with nitric acid, and then added to an excess of solution of 
ammonium molybdate. After standing over night the 
separated precipitate is dissolved in ammonia and the 
phosphoric acid determined by means of an ammoniacal 
solution of magnesium sulphate. 100 parts of the pre- 
cipitate thus obtained correspond to 63 * 96 parts of phos- 
phoric acid. The former belief that the best qualities of 

* According to J .Carter Bell (' Analyst,' vi. pp. 197, 221), the average 
composition of the ash of pure grape-juice is as follows : — 

K 2 Na 2 CaO MgO Fe 2 3 & A1 2 3 Si0 2 P,0 6 S0 3 CI 
42-14 3-37 11*48 9*67 0-75 0-29 9-60 9-14 1-09 



WINE. 177 

wine contain the largest proportion of phosphoric acid does 
not appear to be invariably correct. 

Salicylic Acid. * — The determination of this acid is 
accomplished as follows : — 100 c.c. of the sample are 
repeatedly agitated with chloroform, which is subsequently 
separated and evaporated to dryness. The residue is 
re-crystallised from chloroform and weighed ; its identity 
can be established by dissolving it in water and adding 
solution of ferric chloride (see p. 149). 

Sulphurous Acid. — For the detection and estimation of 
sulphurous acid, the following methods have been recom- 
mended : — 500 c.c. of the wine are placed in a flask, the 
exit-tube of which dips into a test-tube which is suitably 
cooled, and subjected to distillation. When about 2 c.c, 
have distilled, a few drops of a neutral solution of" silver 
nitrate are added to the distillate : in presence of sul- 
phurous acid, a white curdy precipitate will be formed, 
which differs from silver chloride in being soluble in 
nitric acid. According to Haas,f this test is not invariably 
decisive, as pure wine may cause the precipitation under 
certain conditions ; moreover, acetic acid is said to render 
silver nitrate turbid in strong alcoholic solutions. Sul- 
phurous acid can be quantitatively determined by adding 
phosphoric acid to 100 c.c. of the wine, and distilling it 
in an atmosphere of carbonic acid gas. The distillate 
is received in 5 c.c. of normal iodine solution. When 
one-third of the sample has passed over, the distillate 
(which should still contain an excess of free iodine), is 
acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and the sulphuric acid 
formed precipitated with barium chloride. 

* Curtman (Jour. Pharm., xiv. p. 523) states that salicylic acid can be 
detected by adding to 4 c.c. of the wine (or beer) 2 c.c, of methylic 
alcohol and 2 c.c. of sulphuric acid. Shake the mixture, heat gently 
for two minutes, then allow to cool. Next heat to boiling, when, in 
presence of the acid, the odour of oil of wintergreen will be 
perceptible. 

t Zeit. f. Anal. Chem., xxi. p. 3, 1882. 

N 



I78 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

Colouring matters. — Very numerous processes have been 
published for the detection of foreign and artificial colouring 
matters in wine. Among those suggested are the fol- 
lowing : — 

1. A few drops of the sample are placed in succession 
on the smooth surface of a piece of white calcined lime, 
and notice taken of the tint produced. The following 
colours are stated to occur with pure and artificially 
coloured wine : — 

Natural red wine yellowish brown. 

Wine coloured with fuchsine . . . . rose colour. 

„ „ „ Brazil wood .. „ „ 

„ „ „ logwood . . . . reddish violet. 

„ „ „ black hollyhock yellowish brown. 

„ „ „ poke-berries . . yellowish red. 

2. If ammonium hydroxide be added to the suspected 
sample to distinct alkaline reaction, then a little ammonium 
sulphide and the liquid filtered, the filtrate from genuine 
wine will possess a green tint, whereas that obtained from 
artificially coloured wine will exhibit other colours, such 
as red, blue, violet, or brown. 

3. 100 c.c. of the wine are evaporated to about one- 
half of the original volume, ammonium hydroxide added 
to alkaline reaction, and the liquid thoroughly shaken. 
Ether is then added, and the mixture again well shaken. 
It is next introduced into a separator, and allowed to 
stand at rest until the ether has risen to the surface, when 
the lower stratum is drawn off, and the residual ether 
washed by agitation with water, which is subsequently re- 
moved. The ethereal solution is now transferred to a 
flask connected with a Liebig's condenser, a piece of 
white woollen yarn introduced into the liquid, and the 
contents of the flask distilled at a gentle heat : in presence 
of the smallest amount of fuchsine, the wool will acquire a 
very perceptible reddish hue. 

4. A slight excess of ammonium hydroxide is added to 



wine. 1 79 

50 c.c. of the wine, a piece of white woollen fabric intro- 
duced, and the liquid boiled until the alcohol and am- 
monia are expelled. By this treatment it will be found 
that most aniline colouring matters, if present, become 
attached to the wool. Their presence can be corroborated 
by removing the fabric, washing and pressing it, and then 
dissolving it, with constant stirring, in a hot solution of 
potassium hydroxide. When solution has taken place, 
the liquid is allowed to cool, and one-half its volume of 
alcohol is added, then an equal volume of ether. The 
mixture is vigorously shaken, and, after remaining at 
rest for some time, the supernatant ethereal solution is 
removed, introduced into a test-tube, and a drop or 
two of acetic acid added. In presence of fuchsine, its 
characteristic colour will now become apparent. Methyl 
violet and aniline blue are separated by an analogous 
process. 

5. Logwood and cochineal may be detected by agitating 
100 c.c. of the suspected wine with manganic peroxide, 
and filtering. The filtrate afforded by pure wine will be 
colourless. 

6. In Dupre's process,* cubes of jelly are first prepared 
by dissolving 1 part of gelatine in 20 parts of hot water, 
and pouring the solution into moulds to set. These are 
immersed in the wine under examination for 24 hours, then 
removed, slightly washed, and the depth to which the 
colouring matter has permeated is observed : pure wine 
will colour the gelatine very superficially ; the majority 
of other colouring principles (e.g. fuchsine, cochineal, log- 
wood, Brazil wood, litmus, beetroot, and indigo) penetrate 
the jelly more readily and to a far greater degree. Dilute 
ammonium hydroxide dissolves from the stained cake the 
colouring matter of logwood and cochineal, but not that 
derived from fuchsine or beetroot. 

7. The colouring principle of genuine wine when sub- 

* Journ. Chem. Soc, xxxvii. p. 572. 

N 2 



l8o FOOD ADULTERATION. 

jected to dialysis, does not pass through the animal mem- 
brane to any decided extent, while that of logwood, 
cochineal, and Brazil wood easily dialyses. 

8. Many of the foreign dyes added to wine are pre- 
cipitated by a solution of basic plumbic acetate. The 
precipitate obtained upon treating 10 c.c. of the sample 
with 3 c.c. of this reagent is collected on a filter and washed 
with a 2 per cent, solution of potassium carbonate, which 
dissolves cochineal, sulphindigotic acid and aniline red. 
The latter is separated upon neutralising the solution with 
acetic acid, and shaking with amylic alcohol, which, in its 
presence, will acquire a rose colour. The liquid is next 
acidulated with sulphuric acid, and again agitated with 
amylic alcohol, by which the carminamic acid, originating 
from cochineal, is isolated. Any remaining indigo (as well 
as the carminamic acid) is to be subsequently identified 
by means of its spectroscopic reactions. Upon treating 
the portion of the plumbic acetate precipitate which re- 
mains undissolved by potassium carbonate with a dilute 
solution of ammonium sulphide, the colouring matter of 
pure wine and of logwood is dissolved. If, in presence of 
logwood, the original sample is shaken with calcium car- 
bonate mixed with a little calcium hydroxide solution and 
filtered, the filtrate will exhibit a decided red tint, but, if 
the wine treated be pure, little or no coloration will be 
produced. 

9. An artificial colouring for wine, known as rouge 
ve'getale, is not uncommonly employed. According to 
Amthor,* its presence can be recognised as follows : — 
100 c.c. of the wine are distilled until all alcohol is removed. 
The residual liquid is strongly acidulated with sulphuric 
acid, and agitated with ether. Some woollen yarn is next 
introduced into the ethereal solution, which is then evapo- 
rated over the water-bath. In presence of rouge vegetale, 

* Schweizer Wochenschrift, xxii. p. 143. 



WINE. l8l 

the wool will acquire a brick-red colour, which turns violet 
upon treatment with ammonium hydroxide. 

10. Cauzeneuve and Lepine * state that acid aniline red, 
" naphthol-yellow S," and roccelline red are harmless, where- 
as safranine and ordinary Martius' yellow are decidedly 
poisonous. 

The presence of " Bordeaux red " f is recognised by first 
adding sodium sulphate to the suspected wine, then a solu- 
tion of barium chloride : the artificial dye is carried down 
with the precipitated barium sulphate, from which it can be 
extracted by means of sodium carbonate solution. The 
brownish-red liquid thus obtained acquires a deep red 
colour if acidulated with acetic acid, which it readily com- 
municates to silk upon boiling. Natural red wine fails to 
produce a coloration under the same circumstances. 

For the detection of the presence of artificial colouring 
matter the following process is used in the Municipal 
Laboratory in Paris : — Preliminary tests are made — 

ist. By soaking pieces of chalk in an aqueous solution 
of egg-albumen ; these are dried and applied for use by 
dropping a little of the wine upon them, and noting 
the coloration produced. Natural coloured wine usually 
causes a greyish stain, which, in highly coloured varieties, 
may verge to blue. 

2nd. Baryta water is added to the wine under examina- 
tion until the mixture acquires a greenish hue, after which 
it is shaken with acetic ether or amylic alcohol. If the 
wine be pure, the upper layer remains colourless, even after 
acidulation with acetic acid ; whereas, in presence of basic 
coal-tar dyes, such as fuchsine, amidobenzole, safranine, 
chrysoidine, chrysaniline, etc., characteristic colorations 
will be obtained. 

3rd. A few c.c. of the sample are made alkaline by the 

* ' Comptes Rendus,' ioi, pp. 823, ion, 1167. 
t Repert de Pharm. xii. p. 504. 



I 82 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

addition of dilute potassium hydroxide, some mercuric 
acetate added, and the mixture agitated and filtered. 
With pure wines, the filtrate is colourless ; in the presence 
of acid coal-tar derivatives, it is red or yellow. 

The general character of the artificial dye contained in 
the wine having been ascertained by the foregoing tests 
its more precise nature is determined as follows : — 

In case the foreign colouring is basic, the supernatant 
layer obtained in the second test is separated, and divided, 
into two portions ; one portion being evaporated with pure 
woollen yarn, the other with filaments of silk. The dyed 
threads are then subjected to the following tests : — 

(a) Rose-aniline or safranine affords a red coloration ; 
safranine usually attaches itself only on silk. 

(b) Soluble aniline violet produces coloured threads 
which become green upon treatment with hydrochloric 
acid, the primitive colour reappearing upon dilution with 
water. 

(c) Mauve-aniline gives a colour which turns blue upon 
addition of the acid. 

(d) Chysotoluidine causes a coloration which is only 
slightly affected by the acid, but which is discharged upon 
boiling with zinc powder ; upon protracted exposure to the 
air the colour reappears. 

(e) Chrysoidine and Amidonitrobenzole produce yellow 
colours, the former turning poppy-red if treated with 
sulphuric acid, the latter, scarlet. A general character- 
istic of dyes, similar to rose-aniline, is that they are 
decolorised by treatment with sodium bisulphite. 

If the presence of an acid coal-tar dye is indicated by 
the third preliminary test, the following special methods 
of procedure are employed : — 

Two portions of the wine are saturated respectively with 
hydrochloric acid and with ammonium hydroxide water, 
and each portion is strongly agitated with acetic ether. 
The ethereal layers are removed by means of a pipette, 



WINE. 183 

then mixed together, evaporated to dryness, the residue 
obtained treated with a drop of concentrated sulphuric 
acid, and observations made of the colour obtained : — 



(a) Roccelline affords a violet colour. 

(b) Bordeaux, R. and B „ blue 

(c) Panceau R., R.R., R.R.R. 

(d) Panceau, B. 

(e) Biebrich red 

(/) Tropeoline, O.O.O 

(g) Tropeoline, O., and Chrysoidine 

(/i) Tropeoline, O.O. 

(/) Eosine 



scarlet „ 

red 

green to violet colour. 

red colour. 

orange-yellow colour. 

violet-red „ 

vellow 



The method employed in the Paris Municipal Laboratory 
for the detection of dried fruit wine, or of added com- 
mercial glucose, is substantially the following : — A little 
beer-yeast is added to 300 c.c. of the suspected wine, and 
the mixture is allowed to undergo fermentation at a tem- 
perature of about 30 . When the fermentation is completed, 
the filtered liquid is introduced into a dialyser, the outer 
water of which is automatically renewed. The process of 
dialysis is continued until the outer water ceases to show a 
rotary effect when examined by the polariscope, after 
which it is neutralised with calcium carbonate and eva- 
porated to dryness over the water-bath, with constant 
stirring. The residue obtained is treated with ,50 c.c. of 
absolute alcohol and filtered, the insoluble matters being 
twice washed with 25 c.c. of alcohol. The alcoholic fil- 
trates are next decolorised by means of animal charcoal, 
and evaporated to dryness, and the solid residue is dis- 
solved in 30 c.c. of water and polarised. Genuine claret, 
when tested in this manner, fails to exhibit a rotary power, 
or is but slightly dextrogyrate, whereas fruit wines, and 
those containing artificial starch sugar, strongly rotate 
respectively to the left or to the right. 

The following are some of the conclusions arrived at by 
a commission, appointed by the German Government, to 



1 84 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

inquire into uniform methods for wine analysis, and 
establish standards of purity for genuine wine.* 

{a) After deducting the non-volatile acids, the extract in 
natural wine should amount to at least I * I gramme per 
ioo c.c. ; after deducting the free acids, to at least I gramme 
per ioo c.c. 

(b) Most natural wines contain one part of ash to every 
io parts of extract. 

(c) The free tartaric acid should not exceed Jth of the , 
total non-volatile acids. 

(d) The relation between the alcohol and glycerine 
varies in natural wines between ioo parts alcohol to 7 parts 
glycerine, and 100 parts alcohol to 14 parts glycerine. 
These proportions do not apply, however, to sweet wines. 

(e) Genuine wines seldom contain less than o* 14 gramme 
of ash, nor more than 0*05 gramme of sodium chloride per 
100 c.c. 

According to the analyses of Moritz, the maximum and 
minimum relative proportions of the constituents of natural 
wine are as follows : — The extract (after deducting the free 
acids) ranges from 1 * 10 to I -78 per cent. ; the proportion of 
ash to extract varies from 1 : 19*2 to 1 : 6*4; that of 
phosphoric acid to ash ranges from 1 : 12 "3 to 1 : 10*49 ; 
that of alcohol to glycerine, from 100 : 12*3 to 100 : 7'7-t 
From the investigations of Dr. Dupre, it would appear that 
in genuine unfortified wines, the amount of alcohol present 
varies from 6 to 1 2 per cent, by weight. A wine containing 
less than 6 per cent, would be unpalatable, and more than 
13 per cent, cannot well be present, since natural grape- 

* Reichsanzeiger, 1884, No. 154. 

t R. Borgman (loc. cit.) gives the follow average relations of 
ingredients in pure wine : — 

Alcohol : glycerine = 100 : 10*5 



Extract : acidity 
Acidity : ash 
Ash : extractives 
Phosphoric acid ; ash 



1000 : 16*6 

10 : 3-4 

1 : ii - 2 

1 : 6'8 



WINE. 185 

juice does not contain the quantity of sugar requisite for 
the production of a greater amount of alcohol ; moreover, 
an excess of this proportion would retard, if not entirely 
stop, the process of fermentation. Pure wines contain a 
greater proportion of volatile than fixed ethers, but in 
fortified wines the reverse is frequently the case. In 
natural wines, which are not over a few years old, the 
sugar present rarely amounts to 1 per cent., generally it is 
much less. Fortified wines, in which fermentation has 
been checked by the addition of alcohol, often contain 
5 per cent, of sugar ; champagnes usually show from 4 to 
10 per cent, and, in some liqueur wines, a maximum of 
25 per cent, has been found. In natural wines, the total 
dry residue generally ranges from 1 * 5 to 3 per cent, while 
in fortified wines the addition of sugar and other substances 
may increase its proportion to 10 per cent., or even more. 
At the Paris Municipal Laboratory the following standards 
are adopted : The amount of added water in all wines, not 
sold as of a special or abnormal character, is calculated on 
a basis of 12 per cent, of alcohol (by volume) and 24 
grammes of dry extract per litre. The proportion of 
potassium sulphate in unplastered wines must not exceed 
0*583 gramme per litre. The use of salicylic acid is 
prohibited. 



( i86 ) 



LIQUORS. 

The ordinary forms of liquors (namely, whisky, rum, and 
gin), are prepared by the distillation of alcoholic infusions. 
The process of distillation is preceded either by the con- 
version of the amylaceous constituents of grain, first into 
sugar, then into alcohol, or by the fermentation of saccharine 
bodies into alcohol, or, as in the case of brandy, it may be 
directly applied to a solution containing alcohol. 

Brandy. — When genuine, brandy is the product of the dis- 
tillation of various sorts of rich, light-coloured wines. The 
most esteemed quality is prepared in the neighbourhood of 
Cognac, in the Deux Charentes district, and in Armagnac ; 
but numerous inferior grades are manufactured in Rochelle 
and Bordeaux and in other parts of Southern France, as 
well as in Spain and Portugal. In the United States, a 
considerable quantity is produced by the distillation of 
California and Ohio wine. The fermented marc and lees 
of grapes are also extensively utilised in the manufacture 
of brandy. Most of the liquor known in commerce under 
this name, however, is made from the spirit obtained by the 
distillation of potatoes, corn, and other grains, which is sub- 
sequently rectified, deodorised, and then suitably flavoured. 
In France, the different grades of brandy are known as eau- 
de-vie superieure (the best quality of Cognac) ; eau-de-vie 
ordinaire (common, sp. gr. 0*9476) ; eau-de-vie de marc 
(chiefly used for mixing purposes) ; eau-de-vie seconde 
(weak and inferior) ; eau-de-vie a preuve de Hollande (sp. 
gr. 0*941) ; eau-de-vie a preuve dliuile (sp. gr. 0*9185) ; 
eau-de-vie forte (sp. gr. 0*8390); and esprit-de-vin (sp. 
gr. o*86io). 



LIQUORS. 187 

The characteristic taste and bouquet of the original wine 
are to a considerable extent communicated to the resulting 
brandy, and upon these qualities its value is greatly de- 
pendent. Many of the remarks made in regard to the 
ageing, flavouring and blending of wines equally apply to 
brandy, and need not be repeated in this place. When 
freshly distilled, it is colourless, its amber tint being either 
due to the casks in which it has been stored, or to added 
caramel. The normal constituents of genuine brandy are 
water, alcohol (including small amounts of butylic, pro- 
pylic and amylic), various ethers (acetic, oenanthic, butyric, 
and valerianic), aldehyde, acetic and tannic acids, and 
traces of sugar and the oil of wine. The specific gravity 
usually approximates 0*9300 (equivalent to 52 per cent, of 
alcohol by volume), it may, however, range from 0*9134 
to 0*9381 (from 60 to 48 per cent, of alcohol). Owing to 
the presence of acetic acid, genuine brandy usually shows a 
slightly acid reaction. According to Blyth, the constituents 
vary as follows : — total solids, from 1 to 1*5 per cent. ; ash, 
from * 04 to * 2 per cent. ; acids (estimated as tartaric), 
from *oi to '05 per cent.; sugar from o to '4 per cent. 
A partial examination of brandy, by Konig,* furnished the 
following percentages : — specific gravity, o * 8987 ; alcohol 
(by weight), 61*70; extract, 0*645; asn > 0*009. The 
ingredients found in twenty- five samples of brandy tested 
for the New York State Board of Health varied as follows : — 
specific gravity, 0*9297 to 0*9615; alcohol (by weight) 
from 25*39 to 42*96; extract, from 0*025 to 1*795 ; ash, 
from 0*002 to 0*014. 

The majority of these samples were certainly abnormal 
in composition. Ordonneauf has quite recently determined 
by careful fractional distillation the proportions of the more 
important constituents of cognac brandy twenty-five years 
old, with the following results, the quantities being stated in 

* ' Nahrungs u. Genussmittel/ 1st part, p. 187. 
t * Comptes Rendus,' 102, p. 217-219. 



1 88 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

grammes per hectolitre : — aldehyde, 3 ; ethylic acetate, 35 ; 
acetal, traces ; normal propylic alcohol, 40 ; normal butylic 
alcohol, 218 '6; amylic alcohol, 83*8 ; hexylic alcohol, 0'6; 
heptylic alcohol, 1 * 5 ; propionic, butyric and caproic ethers, 
3 ; oenanthic ether, 4 ; amines, traces. The large propor- 
tions of normal butylic and amylic alcohols obtained are 
very significant. It was found that commercial alcohol, 
prepared from corn, potatoes and beetroot, while containing 
isobutylic alcohol, was entirely free from normal butylic 
alcohol, and the difference in flavour between genuine 
brandy and brandy distilled from grains would appear to 
be mainly due to this fact. Normal butylic alcohol is 
obtained when fermentation takes place under the influence 
of elliptical or wine yeast, whereas the iso-alcohol is the 
product of fermentation induced by means of beer yeast ; 
and it was shown that, by fermenting molasses, etc., with 
the aid of wine yeast, a spirit was obtained which much 
resembled brandy in colour and flavour. 

Whisky. — Whisky is the spirituous liquor prepared by 
distilling fermented infusions of barley, wheat, corn, and 
other grains. Spirits that contain over 60 per cent, of 
alcohol are known as "high wines," or common spirits ; 
those containing 90 per cent, of alcohol are often termed 
" cologne spirits," the name whisky being usually given to 
the product of a former distillation, containing about 50 
per cent, by weight of alcohol. In Great Britain, the 
largest amount of whisky is made in Scotland and Ireland ; 
in the United States, the principal supply comes from the 
States of Illinois, Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky (Bourbon Co.), 
and Pennsylvania (Monongahela Co.). The grains taken 
differ greatly in composition. In Scotland and Ireland, 
malted barley (pure, or mixed with other grain) is exten- 
sively employed ; in the preparation of Bourbon, partially 
malted corn and rye are taken, while, for Monongahela 
whisky, only rye (with 10 per cent, of malt) is used. The 
essential features of whisky-making are, first, the con- 



LIQUORS. 1 89 

version of the starch of the grain into dextrine and glucose, 
which takes place in the process of mashing, the change 
being due to the action of the nitrogenous principle, 
diastase (formed during the germination of the gain) ; then, 
the transformation of the sugar into alcohol and carbonic 
acid by fermentation, which is induced by the addition of 
yeast ; and, finally, the concentration of the alcohol by 
distillation- The quality of whisky is much affected by the 
nature of the grain from which it is prepared, and by 
the care exercised in its manufacture, more particularly in 
the process of distillation. The most injurious ingredient 
in distilled spirits is commonly known as " fusel oil," 
which term comprises several products of alcoholic fer- 
mentation, possessing a higher boiling point than ethylic 
alcohol, and consisting chiefly of amylic alcohol, accom- 
panied by small proportions of butylic and propylic alco- 
hols. Several varieties of fusel oil exhibiting distinctive 
properties are met with, but that obtained from potato- 
spirit is the most common. As a rule, the spirits prepared 
from malted grain contain the smallest proportion. In the 
manufacture of whisky, a danger of promoting the form- 
ation of fusel oil is incurred by carrying on the distillation 
to the furthest point, in order to obtain the greatest possible 
quantity of alcohol. In Great Britain, the fermented mash 
is removed from the remaining grain before its introduction 
into the still ; but in this country the entire mash is 
occasionally taken, by which means a larger yield of alcohol 
is supposed to be effected. This practice is evidently open 
to the objection that the solid matters of the wort are 
liable to suffer destructive distillation, and engenders the 
formation of fusel oil. Another result, sometimes ex- 
perienced, is the imparting of a smoky flavour to the pro- 
duct, which was originally intentionally communicated to 
the famous " poteen " whisky of Ireland, by using malt 
dried by means of burning turf. This quality is said to be 
still artificially obtained by the use of creosote. Genuine 



1 90 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

whisky, when recently made, is nearly colourless ; but, 
if preserved in casks, it gradually acquires a brownish 
colour. It contains minute quantities of tannic acid, and 
ethylic and amylic acetates and valerianates. The specific 
gravity generally ranges between 0*9220 and 0*9040, 
corresponding to 48 and 56 per cent, of alcohol. The 
solid extract in whisky is usually below 1 per cent, and 
the total volatile acids under o ■ 1 per cent. In regard to 
the average composition of whisky, chemical literature 
furnishes but very meagre data. The examination of a 
large number of samples of ordinary American whisky 
in 1 88 1, for the New York State Board of Health, gave the 
following results: — Specific gravity ranged from 0*9018 to 
0*9645; alcohol (by weight) from 23*75 to 52*58; solid 
residue, from o* 100 to 0*752 ; ash, from 0*0020 to 0*0280. 
Several samples of rye whisky, examined by Mr. Green,* 
showed alcohol (by weight) from 32*50 to 51*20; tannic 
acid, 0*0003 ; acetic acid, *ooi2 to 0*002 ; sugar, 0*002 to 
0*005 > solid residue, o* 160 to 0*734. 

Rum. — Rum is obtained by the distillation of the fer- 
mented juice of sugar-cane or of molasses ; a very consider- 
able proportion of the article bearing this name is, however, 
made from grain spirit. In France and Germany the 
mother-liquor remaining after the extraction of beet-sugar, 
is utilised in the manufacture of a spirituous liquor greatly 
resembling rum in properties. The characteristic odour and 
taste of the liquor are mainly due to the presence of ethylic 
butyrate, and are frequently factitiously communicated to 
its imitations by the direct addition of this ether or of 
butyric acid. Grain spirit is also sometimes treated with 
pineapples, which likewise impart the distinctive flavour. 
Rum is chiefly produced in the West Indies, and in North 
America. The specific gravity ranges from 0*874 to 
0*926; alcohol, from 50 to 70 per cent.; solid residue, 
from 0*7 to 1*50 per cent; ash, under o*io per centf 
* Am. Chem. 1876, p. 46. f Blyth, op. cit. 



LIQUORS. 



I 9 I 



The following are the results obtained by Berkhurts, from 
the analysis of various samples of genuine and artificial 
Jamaica rum :* — 



Source. 


Specific 
Gravity. 


Alcohol by 
Weight. 


Total 
Solids. 


Ash. 


London 

Glasgow 

Bremen 

Directly imported 

Artificial 

Artificial 


0-885 
0-875 
0-875 
0*910 


61-38 
6I-38 
74-07 

51*33 
38-94 
58-86 


o-668 
4-800 
0-568 
2-047 
0-469 
0-926 


0*023 
0*089 
0-031 
0-098 
0-033 
0*02I 



The variations in the composition of commercial rum 
would seem to be so great that little information of value 
concerning its authenticity is to be derived from analyses 
of a general character. 

Gin. — Genuine Holland gin is a spirit prepared by the 
distillation of fermented grain infusions (rye and malted 
barley), flavoured with juniper berries, or oil of turpentine. 
Formerly the flavouring was directly introduced into the 
still together with the mash, but the more recent practice is 
to add salt, water, and juniper berries to the distilled grain 
spirit, and then re-distil the mixture. Numerous other 
aromatic substances are likewise employed in the manu- 
facture of gin, among which are coriander, cardamom, and 
caraway seeds, orris, angelica, and calamus roots, cassia, 
bitter-almonds, sweet fennel, etc. Cayenne pepper, sugar, 
and acetic acid, are said to be also frequently added to gin. 
Gin doubtless possesses more of an artificial character than 
any other spirit. It is safe to assert that the great bulk of 
the drink sold under the name is simply grain-spirits 
flavoured with some of the preceding aromatics. On the 
other hand, the flavouring agents employed are not, as a 
rule, harmful in their effects, so that the quality of the 
liquor is mainly dependent upon the extent to which the 

* ' Wieder die Nahrungsfalscher,' 1881, p. 105. 



I92 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

spirits used have been rectified. It is difficult to define 
" pure gin," since, owing to its compound character, it 
varies in composition according to the method of manu- 
facture followed by each individual distiller. The varia- 
tions found from the examination of twenty-five samples of 
the commercial article, tested by the New York State Board 
of Health, were as follows :* — Specific gravity, from 0*9302 
to 0*9694; alcohol (by weight), from 18*64 to 44" 33 \ 
solid residue, from 0*018 to 0*772; ash, from o*ooi to 
0*019. 

Adulteration of liquors. — Although it is notorious that 
the more common varieties of spirituous liquors are 
sophisticated, the practices resorted to are unfortunately 
usually of a character that does not permit of positive 
detection, and, unless an actual adulteration, such as the 
addition of some substance foreign to the genuine liquor, 
has been made, a chemical examination alone is frequently 
inadequate to distinguish between the true and the facti- 
tious article. In fact, the ordinary physical qualities, such as 
odour and taste, are often of greater service in determining 
the genuineness of distilled spirits than more scientific tests. 
The most prevalent form of sophistication with brandy, 
rum, and gin, is their artificial imitations ; the direct addi- 
tion of substances deleterious to health being of compara- 
tively unfrequent occurrence. It is usual to employ a 
certain proportion of the genuine liquor in the fabrication 
of its imitation. An apparent objection to this species of 
adulteration is that grain spirits are liable to be used as the 
basis of the fictitious product, which is therefore apt to be 
contaminated with fusel oil, a compound producing toxic 
effects in a proportion fifteen times greater than ordinary 
ethylic alcohol. 

In the United States, whisky is probably less subjected to 
serious sophistication than other spirituous drinks. While 

* See Report by Dr. F. E. Engelhardt, New York State Board of 
Health, 1882. 



LIQUORS. I93 

the blending of this liquor (i. e. the mixing of new and old 
grades) is almost universally practised by the refiner, and 
while the retail dealer often reduces its alcoholic strength 
by the addition of water, there is very little ground for the 
belief that, in this country, whisky is subjected to noxious 
admixture to any great extent 

A very large number of recipes have been published for 
the manufacture of spurious liquors ; the following are 
characteristic, and will indicate their general nature : — 

For Brandy : — 

Cologne spirits (reduced to proof) . . 40 galls. 

Oil of cognac ...... £ oz. 

Burnt sugar colouring ii pint. 

Tannin . . ' \ oz. 

Brandy essence . . 1 part. 

Alcohol 1000 parts. 

Water 600 „ 

The compound known as " Brandy essence " consists of 
oil of grapes, 5 parts ; acetic ether, 4 parts ; tincture of 
allspice, 1 part ; tincture of galls, 3 parts ; and alcohol, 
100 parts. " Oil of cognac " is a mixture of amylic alcohol 
and oenanthic ether. 

According to M. Duplais, the best imitation of Cognac 
is the following : — 

Alcohol (85 per cent.) 54 litres. 

Rum (good quality) 2 „ 

Syrup of raisins 3 „ 

Infusion of green walnut hulls 2 ,, 

Infusion of the shells of bitter almonds .. 2 „ 

Catechu, in powder 15 grammes. 

Balsam of tolu 6 „ 

Pure water 37 litres. 

Mix and colour with caramel. 

New Cognac, Montpellier, Saintonge, and other brandies 
are aged and improved by adding to every 100 litres : old 

O 



194 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

rum, 2 litres ; old kirsch, if litres ; infusion of green walnut 
hulls, f litre ; syrup of raisins, 2 litres. 

A compound sold as " London Brandy Improver " con- 
sists of sugar syrup, acetic ether and essence of cayenne, 
coloured with caramel. 

Whisky : — 

(Rye) Proof spirit.. 50 galls, 

Pelargonic ether ,, .. ., ., ,, 2 oz. 

Pear oil ., .. 4, ........ 1 „ 

Oil of wintergreen (dissolved in alcohol) 10 drops. 

Acetic ether 4 oz. 

Oil of cloves (dissolved in acetic ether) 4 drops. 

(Scotch) Alcohol (95 per cent.) .. ., ., .. 46 galls, 

Scotch whisky , .. 8 „ 

Water 18 „ 

Honey (3 lbs. in if gall, water) .. 

Creosote 5 drops. 

Acetic acid.. ., ., 2 oz. 

Pelargonic ether ., .. , 1 „ 

Ale 1 gall. 

(Irish) Spirits 30 galls, 

Irish whisky ,. .. 5 „ 

Old ale f „ 

Creosote (dissolved in acetic acid) . . 4 drops. 

Pelargonic ether 1 oz. 

The preparation met with in commerce under the name 
of "pelargonic ether" appears to be identical with oenanthic 
ether. 

Rum .— =• 

Rectified spirits 6 quarts, 

Jamaica rum 22 „ 

Rum essence if oz. 

Vanilla essence ~ „ 

Water 2 quarts, 

St. John's bread if oz. 

Raisins if „ 

Proof spirits 40 galls. 

Rum essence f pint. 

Sugar colouring .. .. .. .. .. f „ 

Sugar syrup . . . . . . 1 quart, 



LIQUORS. 195 

" Rum essence " is composed of butyric ether, 1 5 parts ; 
acetic ether, 2 parts ; vanilla tincture, 2 parts ; essence of 
violets, 2 parts ; and alcohol, 90 parts. 

Gin : — 

Corn spirits 80 galls. 

Oil of turpentine 1 pint. 

Oil of juniper 8 oz. 

Salt 21 lbs. 

Water 35 galls. 

Oil of caraway \ oz. 

Oil of sweet fennel \ „ 

Cardamoms 8 „ 

Distil over, 100 galls. 

The chemical examination of distilled spirits is ordi- 
narily limited to a determination of the alcohol, solid 
residue, ash, and volatile acids, coupled with special quali- 
tative and quantitative tests for any particular adulterants, 
the presence of which may be suspected. 

(a) Alcohol — In properly distilled liquors, a fairly ap- 
proximate estimation of their alcoholic strength is effected 
by the specific gravity determination, which is best made 
by means of the special gravity bottle. In the case of 
spirituous liquors which contain extractive matters, it is 
necessary to first separate the alcohol present by the 
process of distillation, and then determine the density of 
the distillate when made up to the volume originally taken. 
The following table gives the percentages of alcohol by 
weight and by volume, and of water by volume, for specific 
gravities at 1 5 . * 

The percentages of alcohol in the table are calculated 
for the temperature of 15 . The necessary correction 
for differences of temperature at which the determination 
is made is obtained by multiplying the number of degrees 
above or below 15 by 0'4, and adding the product to the 
percentage shown by the table, when the temperature is 
lower than 1 5 , and deducting it when it is above. 

* Hager's .' Untersuchungen.' 

O 2 



196 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 



Percentage of alcohol, by weight and by volume, and of 
water by volume, for specific gravity at 15 ; water at same 
temperature being the unit : — 





Percentage. 


>> 

u 
O 


"G 
u 
a, 
m 


Percentage. 


>> 

1 



5 
"0 

a. 
m 


Percentage. 


>> 

1 




1 
5 

M 


By Volume. 


1 


By Volume. 


4 

PQ 


By Volume. 




Pi 

in 


Ale. 


Ale. 


Water. 


Ale. 


Ale. 


Water. 


Ale. 


Ale. 


Water. 


I 'OOOO 


o* 


O 


IOO* 


0*9607 


28*14 


34 


69*04 


C8954 


6o- 3 8 


68 


35*47 


0-9985 


o-8o 


I 


99*05 


0-9595 


29*OI 


35 


68-12 


0-8930 


6l'43 


69 


34*44 


• 9970 


i- 60 


2 


98*II 


0*9582 


29*88 


36 


67-20 


0*8905 


62-50 


70 


33*39 


0-9956 


2 '40 


3 


97*17 


0*9568 


30-75 


37 


66-26 


o*888o 


63-58 


71 


32-35 


• 9942 


3*20 


4 


96*24 


0'9553 


31*63 


38 


65-32 


0*8855 


64*64 


72 


31-30 


0-9928 


4-00 


5 


95*30 


9*9538 


32-52 


39 


64*37 


0*8830 


65-72 


73 


30*26 


0-9915 


4-81 


6 


94-38 


0*9522 


33-40 


40 


63-42 


0*8804 


66-82 


74 


29*20 


• 9902 


5-61 


7 


93*45 


0*9506 


34-30 


4i 


62*46 


0*8778 


67*93 


75 


28*15 


0-9890 


6*43 


8 


92*54 


O * 9490 


35-i8 


42 


61-50 


0-8752 


69*04 


76 


27*09 


0-9878 


7-24 


9 


91*62 


Q'9473 


36*09 


43 


60*58 


0-8725 


70*16 


77 


26*03 


0-9867 


8-o6 


10 


90*72 


0-9456 


37' 00 


44 


59*54 


0-8698 


71-30 


78 


24-96 


0-9855 


8-87 


11 


89*80 


Q'9439 


37.9o 


45 


58*61 


0*8671 


72-43 


79 


23-90 


0-9844 


9-69 


12 


88*90 


O-942I 


38-82 


46 


57-64 


0-8644 


73*59 


80 


22*83 


0-9833 


10*51 


13 


88* 00 


0*9403 


39-74 


47 


56*66 


o*86i6 


74*75 


81 


21-76 


0-9822 


n'33 


14 


87.09 


C9385 


40*66 


48 


55*68 


0*8588 


75*91 


82 


20 -68 


0-9812 


12*15 


15 


86*19 


0-9366 


41-59 


49 


54*7o 


0-8559 


77*o9 


83 


19-61 


0-9801 


12*98 


16 


85*29 


0-9348 


42-53 


5o 


53*72 


0*8530 


78*29 


84 


18*52 


0-9791 


13-80 


17 


84*39 


0*9328 


43*47 


5i 


52-73 


0*8500 


79*51 


85 


17-42 


0-9781 


14-63 


18 


83*5o 


0*9308 


44-41 


52 


5i*74 


0*8470 


80*72 


86 


16*32 


0-9771 


15*46 


19 


82*60 


0*9288 


45*37 


53 


5o-74 


0-8440 


81*96 


S7 


15-23 


0-9761 


16*29 


20 


81*71 


0*9267 


46-33 


54 


49*74 


0*8409 


83*22 


88 


14*12 


0-9751 


17*12 


21 


8o-8i 


0*9247 


47-29 


55 


48-74 


o-8377 


84*47 


89 


13*01 


0-9741 


17-96 


22 


79*92 


0*9226 


48*26 


56 


47*73 


0-8344 


85*74 


90 


ii*88 


0-9731 


i8'79 


23 


79*09 


0*9205 


49-24 


57 


46-73 


0-8311 


87*04 


9 1 


10*76 


0-9721 


19-63 


24 


78-13 


0*9183 


50*21 


58 


45*72 


0*8277 


88*37 


92 


9*62 


0-9711 


20-47 


25 


77*23 


0*9161 


51*20 


59 


44*7o 


0*8242 


89'72 


93 


8*48 


- 9700 


21*31 


26 


76-33 


0-9139 


52*20 


60 


43*68 


0*8206 


91*08 


94 


7*32 


• 9690 


22*16 


27 


75*43 


0'9II7 


53*19 


61 


42-67 


0*8169 


92*45 


95 


6*i6 


0-9679 


23*00 


28 


74*53 


0-9095 


54-20 


62 


41-65 


0*8130 


93*89 


96 


4*97 


0-9668 


23*85 


29 


73*62 


0*9072 


55*2i 


63 


40*63 


0-8089 


95*35 


97 


3*77 


0-9657 


24*70 


30 


72*72 


O * 9049 


56*23 


64 


39* 60 


* 8046 


96*83 


98 


2*54 


0-9645 


25*56 


3i 


71*80 


O * 9026 


57*25 


65 


38-58 


* 8000 


98-38 


99 


1*28 


0-9633 


26*4I 


32 


70*89 


O * 9002 


58-29 


66 


37*54 


0-7951 


100*00 


IOO 


O'OO 


0*9620 


27*27 


33 


69*96 


0*8978 


59*33 


67 


36-51 











(b) Solid residue. — This is determined by evaporating 



LIQUORS. I97 

100 c.c. of the liquor in a tared platinum dish, until con- 
stant weight is obtained. 

(c) Ash. — The proportion of ash is found by the in- 
cineration of the solid residue. If the presence of poisonous 
metallic adulterants (such as copper or lead) is suspected, 
a further examination of the ash is necessary. 

{d) Acids. — The acidity of distilled liquors is generally 
due to minute quantities of acetic acid, and can be esti- 
mated by means of ^th normal soda solution. 

Any mineral acid (e.g. y sulphuric acid) supposed to be 
present is to be sought for in the residue remaining, after the 
distillation process employed in the determination of alcohol. 
The presence of fusel oil in liquors is sometimes quite 
readily detected, by first removing the ethylic alcohol by 
gentle evaporation, and then inspecting the odour and taste 
of the still warm residue. The suspected liquor may 
also be agitated with an equal volume of ether, water 
added, and the ethereal stratum removed by means of a 
pipette, and concentrated by evaporation ; the residue is 
to be examined for amylic alcohol. When distilled with a 
mixture of sulphuric and acetic acids, amylic alcohol is 
converted into amylic acetate, which may be recognised 
by its characteristic pear-like odour ; or, the amylic 
alcohol can be transformed into valerianic acid (which also 
possesses a distinctive odour) by oxidation with sulphuric 
acid and potassium dichromate. Another simple quali- 
tative test for fusel oil consists in first decolorising a 
small quantity of the liquor under examination with animal 
charcoal, adding a few drops of hydrochloric acid, and then 
a little freshly distilled and colourless aniline oil, when, in 
presence of fusel oil, it will be observed that the aniline 
compound acquires a perceptible rose tint as it falls to the 
bottom of the liquid. The quantitative determination of 
fusel oil presents some difficulties. A very ingenious 
method has been suggested by Marquardt.* It consists 
* 'Berichte,' 1882, pp. 1370, 1661. 



198 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

essentially in first agitating the sample with chloroform, 
draining off the solution obtained, washing it by repeated 
shaking with water, and then treating it at 85 with a 
mixture of 5 parts potassium dichromate, 2 parts sulphuric 
acid, and 30 parts of water. The valerianic acid thus 
formed is now separated by distilling the mixture of 
water and chloroform. The distillate is digested with 
barium carbonate, next concentrated by evaporation, and 
then filtered, and divided into two equal portions. One 
portion is, evaporated to dryness, the residue taken up 
with water containing a little nitric acid, and the amount 
of barium present determined by precipitation with 
sulphuric acid. In the other portion, the chlorine origi- 
nating from a partial oxidation of the chloroform, is to 
be estimated. The amount of barium combined with the 
chlorine, is deducted from the total quantity obtained ; the 
remainder represents the proportion in combination with 
the fatty acids formed by oxidation. Of these, valerianic 
acid largely predominates ; and the amount of barium 
valerianate [Ba 2 (C 2 H 3 2 )] found is calculated to its 
equivalent in amylic alcohol. Capsicum, creosote, etc., 
are isolated by treating the sample with ether or ben- 
zole, and testing the odour and taste of the evaporated 
solutions so prepared. 

Creosote gives a blue colour with ferric chloride solution ; 
and the exceedingly pungent vapours evolved upon heating 
a residue containing capsicum are equally characteristic. 
The presence of tannin in distilled spirits, which is mostly 
derived from their preservation in casks, is recognised by 
the formation of a bluish-black colour upon the addition of 
ferric solutions. The identification of the various ethylic 
and amylic ethers used in the preparation of factitious 
liquors is a matter of some difficulty. Their presence is 
most readily detected by means of their characteristic 
odour, which is developed upon adding a little sodium 
hydroxide to the sample, evaporating the mixture over the 



LIQUORS. 199 

water-bath almost to dryness, and then adding a small 
quantity of sulphuric acid. Another means of ascertaining 
the nature of the organic ethers present in spirits is to first 
remove the ethylic alcohol contained by a partial distillation 
with an alkaline solution, and then acidulate the remaining 
liquid with sulphuric acid, and repeat the distillation, when 
the volatile fatty acids originally contained in the ethers 
will be found in the distillate ; their identity is to be 
established by means of their characteristic properties. 
Nitrous ether (which compound is not contained in genuine 
liquors) may be detected by partially distilling the sample 
and adding a mixture of potassium iodide, starch paste, 
and acetic acid to the first portion of the distillate, the 
production of a blue colour indicating its presence. As 
previously remarked, the exercise of the ordinary senses 
is frequently of greater value in judging the quality of 
liquors than the results of chemical tests. Many of the 
organic ethers employed in the manufacture of artificial 
liquors are identical with those contained in the genuine 
article, and it is obvious that, in such instances* no distinct 
tion can be made between them. 



( 200 ) 



WATER. 

The subject of the purity of potable waters possesses the 
highest degree of importance in its sanitary relations, and, 
particular attention has been bestowed upon methods of 
analysis that would serve to indicate the character and 
significance of existing impurities. The earlier processes of 
examination, which chiefly consisted in the determination 
of the mineral constituents of water, while of use in furnish- 
ing an idea of the general nature of the water regarded as 
an inorganic solution, almost totally failed to reveal the 
presence of the more subtle and important organic contami- 
nations which are now known to exert an active influence in 
the propagation of zymotic diseases. During the past few 
years, decided progress has been attained in the analytical 
methods employed. Little is known of the exact nature of 
the organic constituents present in water that has received 
sewage contamination. They may be either of vegetable 
or animal origin, and it appears to be very probable that 
they constitute organised germs. But, although we are 
still unable to determine the constitution of these deleteri- 
ous ingredients, it is at present possible to approximately 
ascertain the hygienic character of drinking water, and to 
distinguish, with a fair degeee of accuracy, between a good 
and a bad sample. In arriving at a conclusion regarding 
the sanitary quality of water, it is, however, also needful to 
take into consideration the origin and surrounding con- 
ditions which affect the chances of contamination. Most 
of the more recent methods of water analysis are based 
upon the fact, that the putrefactive decomposition of harm- 
ful organic matter is attended by the genesis of certain 



WATER. 20 1 

compounds (such as ammonia, nitrites, and nitrates), of 
which quantitative estimations can be made. For the 
purpose of ascertaining the character of a potable water, 
the following determinations are usually necessary : — 
i. Colour, odour, and taste. 

2. Total solid matter and loss on ignition. 

3. Organic matter in solution. 

4. Chlorine. 

5. Ammonia, free and albuminoid. 

6. Nitrogen, as nitrites and nitrates. 

Certain precautions should be observed in the collection 
of samples of water intended for examination. It is indis- 
pensable for this purpose to employ scrupulously clean glass 
stoppered bottles, which are washed out several times with 
the water previous to being filled. If a well or stream is 
to be sampled, the bottle should be entirely immersed in 
the water some distance from the sides of the stream, and, 
if taken from a pump or pipe, the latter should be cleansed 
by first running a considerable quantity of the water before 
charging the bottle. 

1. Colour, odour, and taste. — The colour is best determined 
by filling a glass cylinder, about 2 feet in height, with the 
sample, placing it upon a white surface and observing the 
tint produced ; or, by the use of a coloured glass tube of 
the same length, which is provided with glass plates at- 
tached at each end, and is filled with the sample and 
viewed when held towards a sheet of white paper. 

As a rule, pure water exhibits a light-bluish tint, a yellow- 
ish hue being generally considered a suspicious indication ; 
but it frequently occurs that a perfectly colourless water is 
bad, and one possessing a decided colour may prove to be 
at least, fair in quality. The odour of the sample is ascer- 
tained by placing a corked bottle, one-half filled with the 
water, in a warm place (at about 3 8°) for some time, and 
then shaking the bottle, withdrawing the stopper and im- 
mediately testing the odour. Pure water should be free 



202 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

from much perceptible odour of any lurid, and more es* 
pecially from one of a disagreeable nature* The same 
remark applies to the taste* Water should be practically 
tasteless, even when warmed. It frequently happens, how^ 
ever, that a water may be highly contaminated with dele- 
terious organic impurities, and still remain devoid of any 
marked unpleasant taste. There are few simple tests of 
any value which will reveal at once the sanitary quality of 
drinking water. One* sometimes employed, is to fill a , 
clean quart bottle about three-fourths full with the sus- 
pected sample, and dissolve in it a teaspoonful of fine 
granulated white sugar. The bottle is then corked and 
allowed to remain in a warm place for two days, when, 
in the presence of sewage contamination, it will become 
cloudy or milky.* According to Wanklyn and Chap^ 
man, f if a brownish colour or precipitate is produced 
upon the addition of I * 5 c.c. of Nessler's reagent (see p. 208) 
to loo c.c* of the water, it should be considered unfit for 
domestic use. 

2. Total solid residue and loss on ignition. — 500 c.c. of the 
water under examination are introduced, in small portions 
at a time, into a tared platinum dish, and evaporated to 
dryness over the water-bath, the residue being subsequently 
dried for three or four hours in art air-bath at 100° The 
solid residue obtained, multiplied by 200, represents parts 
in 100,000 : or, by 140, grains per imperial gallon. It is 
usually considered that, unless the proportion of total solids 
exceeds 40 graiils per Imperial gallon (32 grains per U.S. 
gallon, or about 56*5 parts per 100,000), the water need 
not be objected to for drinking purposes on this ground 
alone. The volatile and organic matters are determined by 
igniting the solid residue, which is afterwards allowed to 
cool. It is then moistened with a little carbonic acid water 

• * This test presupposes the existence in the water of the substances 
necessary for the support of vegetable growth, 
f « Water Analysis.' 



WATER. 203 

or solution of ammonium carbonate, dried to constancy at 
130 , and the organic matter estimated by the decrease in 
weight. Formerly, this process was chiefly depended upon 
for determining the proportion of organic substances con- 
tained in water. It is open to numerous serious objections, 
among which are, that it may afford a result either below 
or above that correctly representing the quantity of organic 
ingredients present in the sample. The first case takes 
place when a portion of the organic matter is decomposed 
during the process of evaporation, and is quite liable to 
occur ; the second case takes place when the water contains 
nitrates, which would be decomposed upon ignition. The 
method, however, possesses some value, and is still often 
resorted to as affording a general idea of the proportion of 
organic contamination present, the degree of blackening of 
the solid residue during the process of ignition being, at 
least, a useful qualitative indication. 

3. Organic matter in solution. — A method frequently em- 
ployed for this determination is based upon the supposition 
that the amount of potassium permanganate required to 
oxidise the organic constituents contained in water would 
serve as a criterion of its sanitary value. It is generally 
known as the "Forchammer" or "oxygen" process, and, 
although of undoubted service in comparing the quality of 
samples of very impure water, it is defective in the follow- 
ing important respects : Different organic substances are 
not affected to an equal extent by potassium permanga- 
nate ; albumen, for instance, being far less easily oxidised 
than other compounds, and the value of the results afforded 
is vitiated by the presence of certain inorganic bodies, 
such as nitrites, sulphuretted hydrogen, ferrous salts, etc. 
It has been stated, that the more deleterious and putrescent 
organic ingredients of water are those most readily affected 
by the permanganate solution. As modified and improved 
by Miller * and by Tidy,t the process consists substantially 

* Jour. Lond. Chem. Soc, xviii. p. 117. f Ibid., xxxv. p. 67. 



204 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

in adding an excess of a standard solution of potassium 
permanganate to a measured quantity of the water under 
examination (acidulated with sulphuric acid), and then 
determining the excess of permanganate used by means of 
sodium hyposulphite and potassium iodide. The following 
solutions are required : — 

Potassium Permanganate. — 0*395 gramme of the salt 
is dissolved in 1 litre of distilled water ; 10 c.c. of this 
solution represent o*ooi gramme of available oxygen. 

Sodium Hyposulphite. — One gramme of the salt is dis- 
solved in a litre of water. 

Starch solutioit. — One gramme of starch is triturated with 
about 20 c.c. of boiling water, and the mixture allowed to 
stand at rest over night, after which the clear supernatant 
solution is drawn off. 

Pure distilled Water. — This is prepared by digesting 
10 litres of distilled water with 10 grammes of potassium 
hydroxide and 2 grammes of potassium permanganate in a 
still provided with an inverted condenser at 100 for 
twenty-four hours, after which the water is distilled, sepa- 
rate portions being frequently tested with Nessler's solu- 
tion ; the distillate is not reserved for use until this reagent 
ceases to produce a brownish coloration. 

The determination proper is executed as follows : — Two 
flasks are first thoroughly cleansed by washing with con- 
centrated sulphuric acid, and subsequently with water ; 
250 c.c. of the water to be examined are introduced into 
one, and the same volume of the pure distilled water, 
prepared as above, is placed in the other. 10 c.c. of 
dilute sulphuric acid (1 part pure acid and 8 parts dis- 
tilled water) and 10 c.c. of the potassium permanganate 
solution are now added to each flask, both then being 
put aside for three hours. Two drops of a 10 per 
cent, solution of potassium iodide are next added to 
the flasks, and the amount of iodine liberated (which is 
equivalent to the quantity of permanganate unacted upon 



WATER. 205 

by the water) is determined by titration with the sodium 
hyposulphite solution. The precise end of the reaction is 
ascertained by means of a few drops of the starch paste, 
the hyposulphite being added to each flask until the blue 
colour produced by the starch disappears. The quantities 
of solution used in each titration are then read off. 

The amount of permanganate consumed is equal to 
A — B, where A represents the hyposulphite used with the 
distilled water, and B, that used with the sample under ex- 
amination, and the proportion of oxygen which is consumed 
by the water tested, can be calculated by the formula : — 

(A-B) a 
A 

in which a is the available oxygen in the added perman- 
ganate. For example, if 10 c.c. of permanganate (= crooi 
gramme available oxygen) are added to the 250 c.c. 
(= i litre) contained in each flask, and the distilled water 
required 35 c.c, the sample 15 c.c, of the hyposulphite solu- 
tion, the proportion of oxygen consumed by the £ litre of 
water, would be 

( 35-15) X-ooi 
35 
= '000571, which represents *228 parts of oxygen in 
100,000 parts of water. 

In applying the preceding test, it is requisite that the 
flasks should be kept at a particular temperature, such as 27 . 
The presence of putrescent and readily oxidised organic 
matter or nitrites, which indicates dangerous contamination, 
is recognised by the absorption of any considerable pro- 
portion of oxygen in the space of two minutes. According to 
Dr. Tidy, 100,000 parts of water of various degrees of purity, 
absorb the following amount of oxygen in three hours : — 

Part Oxygen. 

1. Great organic purity o to 0*05 

2. Medium purity 0*05 „ 0*15 

3. Doubtful 0-15 „ o'2i. 

4. Impure over 0*21 



206 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

4. Chlorine. — The importance attached to the estimation 
of chlorine in potable waters is derived from the fact that this 
element enters largely into the food of men and animals, 
and is thrown off in their excreta. This, naturally, contri- 
butes to the sewage contamination to which water is often 
exposed. Water, however, may take up a certain propor- 
tion of chlorides from the geological strata through which 
it passes, and it is of importance to bear this fact in mind 
in forming a conclusion as to the significance of the results , 
afforded by this determination. It is, likewise, to be 
remembered that vegetable organic pollution would escape 
detection were the quantity of chlorine contained alone 
taken into consideration. The determination is conveniently 
made as follows : — 50 c.c. of the water are introduced into a 
beaker, a drop or two of a concentrated and neutral solu- 
tion of potassium chromate added, and then a standard 
solution of silver nitrate very cautiously added from a 
burette, drop by drop, until a faint but permanent red tint 
is produced, If the silver solution is prepared by dissolv- 
ing 2*394 grammes of the nitrate in 1 litre of distilled 
water, the number of c.c. required to cause the reddish 
coloration directly indicates the parts of chlorine present 
in 100,000 parts of the water examined. According to 
Frankland, 100,000 parts of water from various sources 
contain the following proportions of chlorine : — 

Rainwater 0*22 

Upland surface water 1*13 

Springs 2*49 

Deep wells 5*11 

Watts' ' Dictionary of Chemistry ' quotes the proportions 
below : — 

Thames, at Kew 1*21 

Thames, at London Bridge 6*36 

Loch Katrine 0*56 

Rhine, at Basle 0*15 

Rhine, at Bonn 1 • 45 



WATER. 207 

Lake of Geneva .. ,. 0*67 

Elbe, near Hamburg 3-94 

Loire, at Orleans 0*29 

The amount of chlorine contained in sewage is stated to 
range from 6*5 to 21*5 parts, the average being 11*54 
parts.* It is generally considered that a proportion in 
excess of 5 parts in 100,000 parts of a drinking water, 
which is not liable to be affected by mineral admixture, is 
to be ascribed to organic contamination. 

5. Ammonia, free and albuminoid. — It has already been 
mentioned that the decomposition of the nitrogenous 
organic impurities present in polluted water results in the 
production, first, of ammonia, then of nitrites and nitrates, 
and, as it is commonly asserted that the deleterious cha- 
racter of water is mainly due to the putrefactive processes 
taking place, which are probably directly proportionate to 
the quantity of ammonia produced, it is evident that the 
determination of this compound is of considerable import- 
ance. The proportion of albuminous and allied constituents 
in a sample can, moreover, be measured by the quantity 
of ammonia produced when the water is boiled with an 
alkaline solution of potassium permanganate. Upon the 
foregoing facts, Messrs. Wanklyn, Chapman, and Smith f 
have based a method for the determination of the sanitary 
quality of potable waters, which is in very general use. It 
involves, first, an estimation of the ammonia generated 
upon distilling the water with sodium carbonate (" free " 
ammonia) ; second, the quantity given off by boiling with 
alkaline potassium permanganate (" albuminoid " am- 
monia). In case the w r ater tested is contaminated with 
urea, which is not improbable, this compound will be de- 
composed into ammonia by the treatment with sodium 

* Sixth Annual Report, Rivers Pollution Commission, "Blue 
Book." 

f Jour. Lond. Chem. Soc. 1867, xx. p. 445. 



208 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

carbonate. The follbwing solutions are employed in the 
execution of the test : — 

Ammonium Chloride. — Dissolve I " 5735 grammes of the 
dry and pure salt in I litre of distilled water. When 
required for use, dilute ioo c.c. of the solution to I litre ; 
I c.c. of this diluted solution contains '00005 gramme 
of N H 3 . 

Pure Sodium Carbonate. — The ordinary pure reagent is 
freed from any ammonia possibly contained by heating it 
in a platinum capsule. 

Pure distilled Water. — This is obtained as directed on 
p. 204. 

Nessler's Reagent. — This is a strong alkaline solution of 
mercury biniodide. It may be prepared by first dissolv- 
ing 62-5 grammes of potassium iodide in 250 c.c. of hot 
distilled water (reserving 10 c.c. of the solution), and 
adding a concentrated solution of mercury bichloride, 
with constant shaking, to the remainder, until a perma- 
nent precipitate remains undissolved ; this is then brought 
in solution by means of the 10 c.c. of iodide solution, set 
aside, and the addition of mercury bichloride is carefully 
continued until a slight precipitate reappears. A concen- 
trated solution of potassium hydroxide (200 grammes dis- 
solved in water) is now added, and the volume of the 
whole made up with distilled water to 1 litre. The solu- 
tion is then allowed to subside, after which it is decanted 
and preserved in a well-stoppered bottle. 

Permanganate solution. — Dissolve 8 grammes of potas- 
sium permanganate and 200 grammes of potassium 
hydroxide in I litre of water, and boil to expel any 
ammonia present. 

The estimation of free and albuminoid ammonia is made 
as follows : — 100 c.c. of the water to be examined are intro- 
duced into a glass retort, which connects with a Liebig's 
condenser, and has previously been thoroughly cleansed 
by boiling with distilled water ; one gramme of pure 



WATER. 209 

sodium carbonate is added, and the water distilled until 
40 c.c. have passed over, the distillate being separately- 
collected in four 10 c.c. cylinders or tubes. About 10 c.c. 
of the alkaline solution of potassium permanganate is then 
added to the remaining contents of the retort, and the 
distillation continued almost to dryness. The second 
distillate is likewise collected in fractions of 10 c.c. each. 
It is advisable to so regulate the process of distillation, 
that only about 10 c.c. pass over in the space of eight 
minutes. The two sets of distillates are then separately 
tested by adding o * 5 c.c. of the Nessler solution to each 
cylinder, well stirring the mixture, and setting it aside for 
at least five minutes. A series of comparison tubes 
(10 c.c. in capacity) are prepared by adding *ooi, '003, 
•005 up to 'Oi gramme of ammonium chloride, and filling 
to the 10 c.c. mark with pure distilled water ; 0*5 c.c. of 
the Nessler reagent being added to each. The degree of 
coloration exhibited in the cylinders containing the two 
sets of distillates is then matched by the comparison 
cylinders. 

It is evident, that from the data thus obtained, the 
amount of ammonia obtained by the first distillation with 
sodium carbonate (free ammonia), and by the second dis- 
tillation with alkaline potassium permanganate (albu- 
minoid ammonia), can be determined. It has been pre- 
viously mentioned that urea evolves ammonia when boiled 
with sodium carbonate ; the amount of ammonia obtained 
by the first process of distillation will therefore include 
that actually contained as such in the water, and that 
generated by the decomposition of any urea possibly 
present. As the presence of this body is incompatible 
with a good drinking water, this fact is of little real im- 
portance. In case, however, it be desired to make an 
estimation of the free ammonia really present, 500 c.c. 
of the water to be tested are treated with 1 or 2 c.c. of 
calcium chloride solution, then with a slight excess of 

P 



2IO FOOD ADULTERATION. 

potassium hydroxide, and the liquid filtered. It is next 
distilled as directed above, and the remaining contents of 
the retort made up to 500 c.c. 200 c.c. of the original 
sample are then subjected to the same treatment with 
calcium chloride and potassium hydroxide, and filtered. 
The second solution, which contains all the ammonia 
originally present in the water, is now tested with 
Nessler's reagent, the solution first obtained by diluting 
the contents of the retort being employed, instead of pure 
distilled water, for comparison. 

The proportions of free and albuminoid ammonia found 
in the preceding operations are usually expressed in parts 
per 100,000 of the water. Wanklyn gives the following 
amounts of free and albuminoid ammonia contained in 
100,000 parts of several kinds of water : — 

Deep spring water not over o*ooi 

„ „ „ mixed with surface water 0*005 

Filtered water 0*005 to o*oio 

Imperfectly filtered water .. .. o*oi „ 0*02 
Sewage 0*30 

The same authority makes the following classification of 
potable water, reference being made to parts of albuminoid 
ammonia present in 100,000 parts : — 

Extraordinary purity o to 0*005 

Satisfactory purity 0*005 » o*oio 

Dirty over o*oio 

The presence of any considerable proportion of free 
ammonia is usually indicative of recent sewage contamina- 
tion. In the absence of free ammonia, a water need not 
be rejected unless the albuminoid ammonia exceeds o*oio 
part, but a water containing over 0*015 part of albuminoid 
ammonia should be condemned under all circumstances. 

6. Nitrogen as nitrites and nitrates. — It is quite generally 
accepted that the presence in water of the oxidation 



WATER. 2 I 1 

products of nitrogen, is to be ascribed to the oxidation 
of nitrogenous organic matter, unless they are the result 
of percolation through soil containing nitrates, and, for this 
reason, considerable importance attaches to the quantitative 
estimation of the nitrogen present in the state of nitrates, 
and, in some cases, nitrites. One of the most reliable 
methods for this determination is the eudiometric process 
of Frankland, which is based upon that of Crum,* and 
consists in agitating the concentrated water with mercury 
and strong sulphuric acid, and measuring the volume of 
nitric oxide formed by the reduction of nitrates and nitrites. 
Owing, however, to the necessity of employing gas appa- 
ratus, this method is not in very general use. Wanklyn's 
process is the following: — ioo c.c. of the sample are made 
alkaline with pure sodium hydroxide, evaporated to about 
one-fourth of its original volume, next made up to ioo c.c. 
by adding pure distilled water, and introduced into a flask 
which connects with a U-tube filled with powdered glass 
moistened with hydrochloric acid. A piece of aluminium 
foil is then added to the contents of the flask, and the 
mixture is allowed to stand at rest for six or seven hours. 
The contents of the U-tube are now transferred to the 
flask, the latter is connected with a Liebig's condenser and 
the liquid distilled. The proportion of ammonia contained 
in the distillate is determined by Nessler's reagent as pre- 
viously described, from which the amount of nitrogen 
present as nitrates and nitrites is calculated. 

Griessf has suggested a very useful process for the 
determination of nitrous acid and nitrites in potable waters. 
It is executed by placing ioo c.c. of the filtered water in a 
glass cylinder, and adding a few drops of dilute hydro- 
chloric acid, and I c.c. of a solution of sulphanilic acid and 
naphthylamine hydrochloride. In the presenee of nitrites, a 
beautiful rose-red colour (due to the formation of azobenzol- 

* Phil. Mag., xxx. p. 426. 

f Ber.der Deutsch. Chem. Gesell. xii. p. 427. 

P 2 



212 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

naphthylamine sulphonic acid), will be produced. The 
proportion of nitrites contained in the water, is ascertained 
by simultaneously subjecting a solution of potassium nitrite, 
of known strength, to the same treatment, and matching 
the degree of colour obtained, as in the Nessler process. 
This solution can be prepared by dissolving 0*406 gramme 
of dry silver nitrite in hot water, and adding a slight 
excess of potassium chloride. After cooling, the solution is 
made up to one litre, the silver chloride allowed to settle, 
and the clear liquid filtered. If 100 c.c. of the filtrate are 
further diluted to one litre, each c.c. will contain O'OOOOi 
gramme of nitrous acid. 

In Ditmar's method, the residue obtained by the 
evaporation of the water, is first mixed with pure sodium 
hydroxide, and placed in a small silver boat. It is next 
introduced into a combustion tube and burned in a current 
of hydrogen, the evolved gases being received in an 
absorption apparatus filled with very dilute hydrochloric 
acid. In this method the amount of ammonia formed, is 
likewise estimated by means of Nessler's solution. The 
proportion of organic nitrogen is found by deducting the 
free ammonia present in the water and multiplying the 
remainder by \f . 

Messrs. Dupre and Hake * determine the organic carbon 
in water essentially as follows : — The residue of the evapo- 
ration of the water is obtained in a very thin silver dish, 
which can be rolled up and introduced into a combustion 
tube filled three-fourths of its length with cupric oxide. 
The residue is then burned in a stream of oxygen. The 
evolved carbonic acid is absorbed in a solution of barium 
hydroxide, the precipitate formed being collected upon a 
filter, washed, dried, and weighed ; its weight, divided by 
19-4, gives the amount of organic carbon present in the 
sample. The carbonates and nitrates originally contained 
in the water can be removed by boiling with a saturated 
* Chem. Soc. Journ., March, 1879. 



WATER. 2 I 3 

solution of sulphurous acid before the preliminary evapo- 
ration. 

Frankland gives the following average proportions of 
nitrogen, as nitrates, occurring in 100,000 parts of various 
kinds of water : — 

Rain water 0*007 

Upland surface water 0-009 

Deep wells and springs 0*400 

Surface water (cultivated districts) .. .. 0*250 
Shallow wells (no average), 2 to 5 parts common. 

Other authorities regard the presence of more than o*6 
part of nitrogen as nitrates per 100,000 parts of water as 
indicating dangerous pollution. 

At the International Pharmaceutical Congress held in 
Brussels,* the following standards of purity for potable 
water were recommended : — 

1st. A water should be limpid, transparent, colourless, 
without smell, and free of matter in suspension. 

2nd. It should be fresh, with a pleasant taste, and its 
temperature should not vary much, and certainly not be 
higher than 1 5 . 

3rd. It should not contain noxious animal or vegetable 
matter, and especially none of these substances in a state 
of decomposition. 

4th. It should not contain more than 6 to 10 mgrms. of 
organic matter per litre, expressed in terms of oxalic acid. 
It should not contain nitrogenous matter. 

5 th. The nitrogenous organic matter, oxidised with an 
alkaline solution of potassium permanganate, should not 
yield more than o*oi part of albuminoid ammonia per 
100,000. 

6th. It should not assume a disagreeable smell after 
having been kept in an open or closed vessel. 

7th. It should not contain white algae, nor numerous 
infusoria, bacteria, etc. 

* Pharm. Zeit., 1885, No. 76. 



2 14 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

8th. It must hold air in solution, which should contain 
a larger proportion of oxygen than ordinary air. 
9th. . It should not contain, per litre, more than : — 

o"5 gramme mineral salts. 

•060 „ sulphuric anhydride. 

•008 „ chlorine. 

*oo2 „ nitric anhydride. 

• 200 „ alkaline earths. 

•030 „ .. .. .. ... silica. 

•003 „ iron. 

In the Municipal Laboratory of Paris, the following 
standards for potable waters are employed. One litre 
must not contain more than : — 

0*5 too '6 gramme .. .. total mineral residue. 

0*25 „ „ .... calcium sulphate. 

0*015 „ „ .. .. chlorine. 

0*005 „ „ .... organic matter (calculated 

as oxalic acid), 
o'ooi „ „ .... albuminoid ammonia. 

o*ooi „ „ .... metals precipitated by sul- 

phuretted hydrogen. 
0*003 „ „ .. .. iron. 

No sulphuretted hydrogen. 

100 c.c. should contain 3*25 c.c. of gas, 10 per cent, of 
which should be carbonic acid and 33 J per cent, oxygen. 

Professor J. W. Mallet* suggests the idea, that the 
noxious character of potable waters containing nitrates 
and nitrites, with but small proportions of organic matter, 
may be due to the presence of a special nitrifying ferment 
belonging to the lower organisms, which are capable of 
propagating disease. 

In regard to the degree of importance that should attach 
to definite and arbitrary standards of purity, it appears to 
be accepted that, although the data afforded as the result 
of chemical tests are often of value in discriminating 



* i 



Annual Report of the National Board of Health,' 1882, p. 207. 



WATER. 2 I 5 

between pure and impure waters, but little reliance should 
be placed upon such criteria alone. 

Professor Mallet, who has devoted much attention to 
the investigation of potable waters, and whose opinion on 
this subject is entitled to the highest consideration, arrived 
at the following conclusions concerning the more vital 
points at issue in the determination of the hygienic 
character of water : — 

"I. It is not possible to decide absolutely upon the 
wholesomeness or unwholesomeness of a drinking water 
by the mere use of any of the processes examined for 
the estimation of organic matter or its constituents. 

" 2. I would even go further, and say that in judging 
the sanitary character of the water, not only must such 
processes be used in conjunction with the investigation of 
other evidence of a more general sort, as to the source 
and history of the water, but should even be deemed of 
secondary importance in weighing the reasons for accept- 
ing or rejecting a water not manifestly unfit for drinking 
on other grounds. 

" 3. There are no sound grounds on which to establish 
such general 'standards of purity' as have been proposed, 
looking to exact amounts of ' organic carbon ' or ' nitrogen,' 
' albuminoid-ammonia,' ' oxygen of permanganate con- 
sumed,' etc., as permissible or not. 

"4. Two entirely legitimate directions seem to be open 
for the useful examination by chemical means of the 
organic constituents of drinking water, namely ; first, the 
detection of very gross pollution, * * * * and, 
secondly, the periodical examination of a water supply, as 
of a great city, in order that the normal or usual character 
of the water having been previously ascertained, any sus- 
picious changes, which from time to time may occur, shall 
be promptly detected and their cause investigated." 

The microscopic and biological investigations of water are 
useful adjuncts to the chemical examination. The former 



2l6 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

is made by allowing a litre or more of the sample to remain 
at rest for several hours, collecting the deposit formed and 
inspecting it by means of the microscope, using low magni- 
fying power at first. It will be found advantageous to stain 
portions of the sediment obtained with aniline violet, which, 
by a sort of predilection, attaches itself to particular forms 
of vegetable and animal life, thereby rendering them more 
distinct. The matters most usually observed in the micro- 
scopic examination of the deposit are : — 

ist. Numerous lifeless substances, such as mineral 
matters, vegetable debris, muscular and cellular tissues, 
hairs, hemp, wool, cotton, silk, starch cells, insect remains, 
and pollen grains. 

2nd. Living vegetable forms, such as confervae, various 
algae, oscillatoria, desmids, diatoms, and bacteria. 

3rd. Living animal forms, including many varieties of 
infusoria and animalcula. Of the latter, those known as 
"saprophytes" are regarded as specially indicating the 
presence of sewage contamination. 

Certain varieties of bacteria have been found associated 
with some forms of disease, and particular attention has 
been bestowed upon the study of these germs. The 
biological examination of water consists of pathological 
experiments on living animals, made by injecting a solution 
of the water-residue beneath the skins of rabbits, etc., and of 
experiments made by inoculating culture gelatine with 
the water. Of the latter methods of examination, that 
originally suggested by Dr. Koch, of Berlin, and described 
by Dr. Percy F. Frankland,* is well worthy of mention. 
In this process, the lower forms of life are cultivated in a 
solid medium, by means of which the growth of each 
colony is localised and rendered suitable for microscopic 
inspection. 

The medium employed by Dr. Frankland has the 
following composition : 

* Jour. Soc. Chem. Indus., Dec. 1883. 



WATER. 2 I 7 

Lean meat i lb. 

Gelatine 150 grammes. 

Solid peptone 10 „ 

Sodium chloride 1 „ 

Distilled water 1 litre. 

The finely-cut meat is first infused in half a litre of cold 
water for two hours and strained ; the gelatine is digested 
in the other half-litre of water, then mixed with the meat- 
extract, and the whole heated until the gelatine is com- 
pletely dissolved, when the peptone and salt are added. 

The liquid is now cautiously neutralised with sodium 
carbonate, and clarified by beating it together with two or 
three eggs, boiling, straining through cloth, and filtering 
hot through bibulous paper; upon cooling it sets to a 
transparent jelly. Before setting, 7 c.c. of the liquid are 
introduced into a series of clean test-tubes, which are 
tightly plugged with cotton-wool and then sterilised by 
steaming them half-an-hour for three or four consecutive 
days. It is necessary to observe special precautions in the 
collection of the sample of water to be examined. Glass- 
stoppered bottles are well adapted for this purpose. These 
are to be very thoroughly washed with distilled water, then 
dried and finally sterilised by heating in an air-bath for 
three or four hours at a temperature of from 150 to 180 . 

The actual examination of the water is executed by first 
heating one of the test-tubes containing the sterilised 
gelatin medium in a water-bath to 30 , by which it is 
fused. The external portion of the cotton-wool is next 
burned, the tube opened, and a certain number of drops 
of the water to be tested (previously well shaken) are 
introduced by means of a sterilised pipette. The mixture 
is immediately poured out upon a clean and sterilised glass 
plate which rests in a perfectly horizontal position, and is 
covered by a glass shade. The plate is supported by a 
glass tripod which dips into a dish containing a two per 
cent, solution of mercuric chloride — thus forming an anti- 
septic protection from the external air. The tripods, 



218 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 



dishes, etc., are sterilised by washing them with the 
mercuric chloride solution. As soon as the gelatine 
mixture has set, the glass plate (together with the cover) 
is introduced into an air-bath kept at a temperature of 
from 20°-25°, where it is allowed to remain for two to 
five days for incubation. The individual organisms and 
the progress of the formation of colonies are observed from 
time to time by inspecting the plate, which can be done 
without removing the glass cover. As soon as they have 
become easily visible to the naked eye, the plate is 
removed from the bath, and placed upon another glass 
plate, which is ruled in squares, and put over a black paper. 
The colonies are then counted by aid of a lens, or, if they 
are too numerous to admit of this, the number contained 
in a few of the squares is determined and multiplied 
accordingly. 

Dr. Frankland has applied the foregoing method to the 
examination of the London water supply (1885), with the 
following results :— 

Micro-organisms in i c.c 





Jan. 


Feb. 


March. 


May. 


June. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


River Thames 










155 




1644 


714 


1866 


at Hampton 




















Chelsea 


8 


23 


IO 


H 


22 


8l 


13 


34 


3 


West Middlesex 


2 


16 


7 


3 




26 


2 


2 


5 


South wark 


13 


26 


246 


24 




47 


18 


24 


32 


Grand Junction 


382 


57 


28 


3 


21 


18 


43 


40 


40 


Lambeth .. 


10 


5 


69 


30 




38 


103 


26 


26 


River Lea. 




















River Lea at 


















954 


Chingford Mill 




















New River 


7 


7 


95 


3 




27 


3 


2 


11 


East London .. 


25 


39 


17 


121 




22 


29 


53 


14 


Deep Wells. 




















Kent (well at 










6 






6 


8 


Deptford) 




















Kent (supply) .. 


10 


4i 


9 


20 


26 




H 


18 





PLATE XI. 




FIG. 2. 




FIG. 1 



WATER. 2 1 9 

In Plate XL, Fig. I exhibits the animal and vegetable 
living forms contained in Croton water. They have been 
catalogued as follows : — 

(a) Asterionella formosa, vegetable ; a diatom, x 312. 
\b) Pediastrum simplex, vegetable ; a desmid, x 200. 
(c) Cyclotella astraea, vegetable ; a diatom, x 200. 

(d) Vorticella ; an animalcule, X 312. 

(e) Conferva, vegetable ; " green scum," X 40. 
(/) Epithelial cell ; X 200. 

{g) Fragillaria cupucina, vegetable ; a diatom, x 200. 
(k) Heteromita ovata ; an animalcule, X 500. 

(2) Halteria grandinella (?) ; an animalcule, x 200. 
(k) Anguillula fluviatilis ; a water-worm, X 312. 

(/) Amoeba porrecta ; an animalcule, X 200. 
in) Dinophrys ; an animalcule, X 200. 

(0) Didymoprium borreri, vegetable ; a desmid, X 200. 
(fi) Tabellaria fenestrata, vegetable ; a diatom, X 312. 

(g) Free vorticella ; an animalcule, x 200. 

(r) Coccudina costata, dividing ; an animalcule, X 312. 

(s) Monas umbra ; an animalcule, X 312. 

(/) Cyclidium obscissum ; an animalcule, x 312. 
(u) Chilodon cucullulus ; an animalcule, X 200. 
(v) Epistylis nutans ; young animalcules, X 200. 
(w) Paramecium ; an animalcule, X 200. 

(x) Difflugia striolata, the lorica or case ; an animalcule, x 200. 
(y) Conferva; vegetable "green scum," 312. 
(z) Vorticella microstoma ; an animalcule, x 200. 
{a a) Fragments of dyed wood, X 200. 

{c c) Gomphonema acuminatum, vegetable ; a diatom, x 200. 
(e e) Arthrodesmus octocornis, vegetable ; a desmid, X 3 1 2. 
iff) Scenodesmus quadricauda, vegetable ; a desmid, x 200. 
(z i) Navicula rhynchocephala (?), vegetable ; a diatom, X 200. 

Fig. 2 represents the organisms found in the Brooklyn 
(Ridgwood) water supply : — 

{a) Actinophrys sol ; an animalcule, x 200. 

(b) Coccudina costata ; an animalcule, x 200. 

(c) Chastonotus squamatus ; hairy-backed animalcule, x 200. 

(d) Notommata; a rotiferous animalcule, X 200. 

(e) Amoeba guttula ; an animalcule, X 200. 

(/) Melosira orichalaea, vegetable ; a diatom, x 200. 



220 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 



(<£*) Vorticella microstoma ; animalcules, X 200. 
(A) Chaetonotus larus ; hairy-backed animalcule, X 200. 
(0 Tabellaria flocculosa, vegetable ; a diatom, x 200. 

The original drawings from which Plate XI. is taken 
were prepared by Mr. William B. Lewis, for the Metro- 
politan Board of Health. 

The presence of these organisms, however startling 
some of them may be in appearance, is usually not 
objectionable ; indeed, microscopic vegetable growths 
are frequently of service in the purification of potable 
water. The more important forms of bacteria (bacilli, etc.), 
present minute rod-like shapes, far less impressive in 
appearance. 

Considerable difference of opinion exists in regard 
to the sanitary value of the results afforded by the 
biological examination of water. While the number 
of bacteria found in a given quantity of water may be of 
aid in the formation of an opinion as to its relative 
safety for domestic purposes, it should be borne in 
mind that these micro-organisms are almost omnipresent, 
being contained in the air, and in soils, and articles of 
food. 

The following tabulation shows the relative purity of 
the water supply of several American cities, as determined 
by Prof. A. R. Leeds, in June, 1881 : — 



Parts in 100,000 


New 
York. 


Brooklyn. 


Jersey 

City. 


Phila- 
delphia. 


Boston. 


Washing- 
ton. 


Ro- 
chester. 


Cin- 
cinnati. 


Free ammonia. . 


0*0027 


0*00075 


0*00475 


O'OOI 


0*01325 


0*006 


0'0II4 


0*OII5 


Albuminoid am- 


0*027 


0*00825 


0*0427 


0*018 


0*0605 


0*027 


0*023 


0*024 


monia. 


















Oxygen required 


o*8i 


0*413 


o'95 


0*46 


i*77 


o*6oo 


0*790 


o*86o 


Nitrites . . 


None 


None 


None 


None 


None 


None 


None 


None 


Nitrates 


0*8325 


1*2025 


0*9065 


0-6845 


1*2395 


0-8325 


0*629 


0*740 


Chlorine 


o*35o 


0-550 


0*235 


0*3000 


o-3i5 


0*270 


0*195 


0*805 


Total hardness . . 


3-300 


2*270 


3* 200 


4*400 


2* IOO 


4* 800 


5-5oo 


6*400 


Total solids 


u*8oo 


6* 000 


9*300 


14-300 


8*500 


1 1 * 500 


10 * 000 


16 * 200 


Mineral matter 


5* 000 


5* 000 


3*400 


6*ooo 


2*O0O 


5*500 


4* 000 


9* 000 


Organic and vola- 


6* 800 


I'OOO 


5*900 


8*300 


6*500 


6*ooo 


6* 000 


7* 200 


tile matter. 



















WATER. 



221 



Q 


tf 


J >nvO ^ & On *• 

— < s onoo 9 5* o • m vo • 

^ b b ^ ^ b Mn 


> 

o 


ji 


<U Nifl <D <U 00 H^- OO 

(j O coto OOO OO 00 co5 o o 

2* b b ^ ^ b b b Vo co co Vt- t^ 


u 

4> 

O 

O 


o 


• G ^"O g g ^" O ►■< i-i — o o O 
TjO N ^ OOO OO m m O to to 

^ b b £ ^ b b b Vt- "s*- co V»- r-^ 


rC 


,_ G r^io G G ^" " NOiO O O 
(jO N rtf- OoO O io N io O >o 

£ b b £ £ b o b W n V vb 


u 

<U 

£ 

V 
ft 
4» 
C/} 




.2 ooco 2 2*^ n on on n 

rJ 9 o^ 5 £ •«■ oo ^-mo o o 

CJ>°. CMCO £ 5 O ONOO to O to 

^ b b b b b co co n W- vo 


^3 


<U On ^- (u a) *-» ^"VO vO On _ _ 

^ g o^- c gfo o« 2^"2° 2 ° 

{j O N co oSo OO O ■*""> O to 

^ b b £i £ o b b in'-tN V i 


S3 

3 
< 


m 


.2 cok 2 2 °o won n n 

^ £ _ _, gpirj- OO cocoO O O 
V £ coto ooo 55 cocoo to in 

^ b b z ^ b bo V V n V vb 




.g ooon Se^ ST 1 '"*" ^3^ 

~-* 9 *>• to 5 g ^ Ow OOrfO O O 
U2 « J* jg jg O OO JO On O O O 

b b b b O rh co co in M 


•-> 





.2 vo ti- 2 2ocT cow ^ ** 

rj 5 N !>» 9°co O-i cocoO O O 
U £ M fO O O O OO COCOiO o lO 

b b b b b Wn in r^ 


rf5 
to 


.^ OnOn SJiON MOO 0000 
-^« t^^o 9»co OO vovoO Q o 

z b b ^ ^ b b b W- "n- b ^ ^ 


4) 

q 

3 


o 

fO 


.^vo^^^lt.o 1 '* 00VO 
-r;9 Nr ^ 99*^ O m vooOO O O 
Oh~ N co O^o OO On^oO w> vo 

b b b b b W n to r^. 


rC 


.2 00 Tt £ J}vo rots O O 
-<£ rj-l^ g « Th OO VOOO O O 
tj O COlO OOq OO OOiOvo U-) O 

b b b b b co co n V t^ 






.2 "*o 22^t- moo OO 

£ n ^2. noS? °° 00«O O O 
f-n^ N^ ^O OO nxoo »oio 

b b b b b V co co V t^ 




£ 2 00 m § g oi vO Nt^OO^ 

H « Tft^9«Ti- w 00 30 o o o 

° POtoOOo O O t^ to O to 

oo *^ b b b o b V co '-> W* to 


a. 
<1 




CO 

© 00O> OiUO h ON 

[jo ' n^- ooo OO tscoo 5 5 
£i b b **& b b b "^j- Vvo to m 


P 







o 

V 

ft 

1 


.O .g ..H3 • c 1 * ".2 fl <^ 

*H ?s : : -a |.S"a s 3l'2 , g l S -t 

g2.- 5 «^^ "^SoSo^ G" ^r^ 
ci o ? o -| 2 » -C 2 5 <u | £ u « < § J g -3 13 o 

<o uw S^;^ fe<2 o § h 



222 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 
Parts per i 00,000. 



Description of Sample. 





V 

u 

X! 


V 

jo 


s 

-3 

w 




4) 

)-> . 

30 
O 00 

c 


.5 

V 

c 




u 


Faint, 
aromatic 


0*233 


0-371 


Faint, 
vegetable 


0-233 


0-371 


Faint, 
vegetable 


0*233 


0-371 


Faint, 

marshy 


0*167 


O-265 


Faint 


o*333 


0-530 


Faint, 
stale 


o*333 


0-530 


Faint 


0-366 


0*583 


Faint 


0-366 


0-583 


Oily 


0-233 


0-371 


Oily 


0*183 


0-291 


•• 


0-340 


0-54I 


Faint, 
stale 


0-340 


0-54I 


Faint, 
stale 


0-833 


I-325 


Faint, 
stale 


0-833 


I'325 


Faint, 
marshy 


0-966 


1*537 



Mohawk River, above 
Diamond Woollen 
Mills 

Hudson River, above 
Lansingburg 

Troy hydrant 



Hudson River, at 
Maple Island 

Hudson River, at inlet 

Hudson River, at inlet 

Hudson River, at inlet 

Hudson River, at inlet 

Hudson River, 50 ft. 
south of inlet 

Hudson River, at inlet 
Bleecker Reservoir . . 
Bleecker Reservoir . . 
Tivoli Lake 
Tivoli Lake 
Tivoli Lake . . . . 



188 
Dec. 



Nov. 12 



Dec. 

Nov. 



Dec. 



Nov. 



High tide 

Low tide 

>> 
High tide 
Low tide 



light 



Dec. 



Turbid, green- 
ish yellow 

Faintly turbid, 
light greenish 
yellow 

Faintly turbid, 
light greenish 
yellow 

Faintly turbid, 
greenish yellow 

Clear, 
yellow 

Faintly turbid, 
light yellow 

Clear, brownish 
yellow 

Turbid, brown- 
ish yellow 

Slightly turbid, 
brownish yellow 

Turbid, brown- 
ish yellow 

Clear, faint 
yellow 

Turbid, faint 
yellow 

Faint milkiness 
Whitish, milky 
Turbid, greenish 



WATER. 



223 



Parts per 100,000. 



c/i 
0) 

t 



Oh 


in 
V 


1> 

a 

.2-- 

gl 


2 
'2 

2 
2 
< 

V 


2 

'2 


2 

.12 
'3 

a 

"2 

a 


Oxygen ab- 
sorbed at 
8o° Fahr. 


Hardness 

equivalent to 

Carbonate of 

lime. 


> 
C 


'!« 

O 


'a 
u 

a 


-a 


m 

a 

a 


3 
O 

a 


bi 

c 

pq 


bb 

< 


12 
*o 

M 
H 






0*0705 


0*0044 


0*0074 


0*2071 


0*3704 


6-8 3 8 


6-838 


I'70 


9*oo 


10-70 






0*0247 


•• 


0*0150 


0*2691 


0*4150 


3'8i8 


3*8i8 


2*20 


5*80 


800 


•• 


" 


0*0284 


0*0015 


0*0151 


0*2750 


0*4000 


4*498 


4*498 


2*60 


6-50 


9*00 




»■ 


0*0614 


0*0014 


0*0082 


0*2827 


0*4IOO 


5*049 


4-839 


2*40 


5-3o 


7*70 






0*0277 


0*0064 


0*0002 


0*1670 


0-3III 


5*897 


5-897 


1*40 


9-80 


II*20 






0*0265 


0*0038 


0*0142 


0*1890 


0*3422 


6*237 


6-237 


5'00 


7-20 


12* 20 


•• 


•' 


0*0471 


0*0028 


0*OI34 


0*2180 


0-3180 


6-237 


6-o86 


i-8o 


9-20 


II'OO 




'• 


0*0288 


0*0050 


0*OI24 


02200 


0-3470 


6-048 


6-048 


4*80 


8-20 


13*00 


•• 


•' 


0*0647 


0*0054 


0*01I4 


0*2509 


0-4340 


5-47o 


5-47o 


3-5o 


4-50 


8*oo 


•• 




0*0606 


0*0064 


0*0090 


0*2230 


0*4420 


5-838 


5-838 


i'5o 


7-50 


9-00 






0*0484 


0*0052 


o*oo68 


0*1511 


0*2578 


5-330 


3-893 


2*50 


8- 80 


11-30 


•• 


•' 


0*0489 


0*0046 


0*0102 


o-i755 


0'3020 


6-577 


6*577 


5-7o 


6-8o 


12*50 


Faint 
trace 


Faint 
trace 


0*0507 


0*0184 


0*0080 


0*0780 


0*2030 


7-069 


4'309 


2-00 


12.00 


14-00 


Faint 
trace 


Faint 
trace 


o*o6n 


0*0198 


0*0280 


0*I200 


OI852 


7-409 


5-48i 


6*oo 


ii-oo 


17-00 


Faint 
trace 


Faint 
trace 


o'i334 


0*0380 


o*on8 


0*I075 


0*1762 


8-468 


8-468 


3 -20 


10-40 


13-60 



2 24 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

The variation in the composition of Croton water, at 
different seasons of the year, is exhibited by the table on 
p. 221, which gives the results of the semi-monthly ex- 
aminations made by Dr. Elwyn Waller during the year 
1885.* 

For the results of the analyses of the water of the 
Hudson River, recently made by Dr. C. F. Chandler, see 
table, pp. 222, 223. 

The rather common belief that freezing purifies water 
is incorrect. It is said, that the greater part of the ice 
supply of New York City (three millions of tons) is 
gathered from the Hudson River between Albany and 
Poughkeepsie, most being drawn within thirty miles of 
the former city, and therefore liable to be polluted with 
sewage. The average number of bacteria in one c.c. of 
ordinary ice is stated to approximate 400, but Hudson 
River ice has been found to contain nearly 2000 bacteria 
per cat The number of bacteria in one cc. of snow is 
usually about 9000 ; Hudson River snow-ice contains 
20,000 per c.c. ; and, although the great majority of these 
organisms are perfectly harmless, cases are on record where 
epidemics (as of gastro-enteritis) have been directly traced 
to the use of impure ice. 

* Jour. Am. Chem. Soc, viii. p. 6. 

t See paper read by Dr. T. M. Prudden before the New York 
Academy of Medicine, March 18th, 1887. 



22 1 






VINEGAR. 

VINEGAR is a dilute aqueous solution of acetic acid, con- 
taining inconsiderable proportions of alcohol, aldehyde, 
acetic ether, and extractive matters, which, to some extent, 
impart a characteristic flavour and aroma. The process 
most frequently involved in the preparation of vinegar is 
known as the acetous fermentation, and may be induced 
in various saccharine juices and infusions, such as those of 
apples, wine, malted grain, etc., when, in presence of a 
ferment, they are exposed to the action of the air, at a 
temperature between 24 and 32° In the oxidation of 
alcohol, an intermediate compound (aldehyde) is at first 
formed, which, by the continued action of oxygen, is ulti- 
mately converted into acetic acid. A dilute solution of 
alcohol is, however, not oxidised to acetic acid by simple 
exposure to the air ; it is usually necessary that a peculiar 
microscopic plant {mycoderma aceti) should be present. 
This fungus includes two varieties, viz., minute globules 
{micrococci) and rod-like forms [bacilli) varying in size ; and 
is often developed in old casks that have been long em- 
ployed for making vinegar. It constitutes a gelatinous 
mass (" mother of vinegar ") having the appearance of glue 
that has been soaked in cold water ; the surface quickly 
becomes coated with a bluish mould {Penicillium glaucum). 
Pasteur regards acetification as a product of the develop- 
ment of the mycoderma aceti, i.e., as a physiological fermen- 
tation — but it appears probable that the process is rather 
one of oxidation, and that the fungus accelerates the change 
by condensing the oxygen upon its surface and delivering 
it to the alcohol, possibly in the form of ozone. Indeed, 

Q 



2 26 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

the process of vinegar making may take place in the entire 
absence of the mycoderma^ as when spongy platinum is 
brought into contact with alcoholic solutions ; and Buchner 
has examined shavings which had been used in a vinegar 
factory for over twenty-five years, and found them to be 
absolutely free from the fungoid plant. In the United 
States, the best known and most esteemed kind of vinegar 
is that obtained by the acetification of apple cider ; but by 
far the largest quantity is manufactured from alcohol and 
spirituous liquors. Cider vinegar is free from aldehyde but 
contains malic acid. The usual source of vinegar in Great 
Britain is a wort prepared from mixtures of malt with other 
grain ; while, in Continental Europe, inferior sorts of new 
wine (especially white wine) are extensively employed for 
its production. 

Malt vinegar possesses a brown colour and a density 
ranging from I *oo6 to I -019; that known as proof vinegar 
contains from 4*6 to 5 per cent, of acetic acid. In Great 
Britain the manufacturer is allowed by law to add o* I per 
cent, of sulphuric acid to vinegar, on account of its sup- 
posed preservative action, and, although the practice is now 
known to be unnecessary, it is still sometimes resorted to. 
The specific gravity of wine vinegar varies from I -014 to 
I *022. 100 c.c. should neutralise from 0*6 to 0*7 grains of 
sodium carbonate, and the solids obtained upon evaporation 
to dryness should approximate two per cent. According 
to the United States Pharmacopoeia, one fluid ounce of 
vinegar should require for saturation not less than 35 grains 
of potassium bicarbonate. 

In 500 samples of imported wine and malt vinegar tested 
by the author, the minimum and maximum strength ranged 
from 3 to 10 '6 per cent, of acetic acid, the specific gravity 
from 1 '0074 to I '0150, and the number of grains of potas- 
sium bicarbonate required to neutralise one troy ounce 
from 22 to 84. Of 273 samples of vinegar tested in 1884 
by the Massachusetts State Board of Health, 52 were above 



VINEGAR. 22 7 

the then legal standard of 5 per cent, of acetic acid, and 221 
below ; 109 of the latter contained more than 4 per cent. ; 
the strongest sample showed 8 ' 86 per cent., and the weak- 
est contained but 0'66 per cent, of acetic acid. In the year 
1885, 114 samples were examined, of which 45 were above 
and 69 below the standard of 4 J per cent, acetic acid. 

In the State of New York, the legal standard for vinegar 
is 4*5 of absolute acetic acid, and, in the case of cider 
vinegar, the proportion of total solids must not fall below 
2 per cent. In Massachusetts, also, the acidity must be 
equivalent to 4J per cent, of acetic acid, and cider vinegar 
must contain, at least, 2 per cent, of solid matter. The 
English standard of strength is 3 per cent, of acetic acid. 

Analysis. — For the requirements of the United States 
Customs Service, the only estimations ordinarily made are 
the specific gravity, and a determination of the acidity. 
The former is accomplished by means of the specific gravity 
bottle ; the latter, by placing 10 c.c. of the sample in a 
beaker, adding about 30 c.c. of water, then a few drops of 
an alcoholic solution of phenol-phthalein (to serve as the 
indicator), and titrating with a normal alkali-solution ; the 
number of c.c. used divided by 10 and multiplied by 48, 
gives the amount, in grains, of potassium bicarbonate 
required to neutralise one troy ounce of the vinegar. In 
the presence of sulphuric acid, it is necessary to distil a 
measured quantity of the sample almost to dryness and 
titrate the distillate, it being assumed that 80 per cent, of 
the total acetic acid present passes over. 

The determination of the extract or solid residue in 
vinegar is executed in the same manner as described under 
beer and wine. Several tests have been suggested for the 
detection of the presence of free sulphuric acid. The 
usual reagent — barium chloride — is not well adapted to 
the direct determination of this acid, since sulphates, which 
are as readily precipitated as the free acid, may also be 
present. The following methods may be employed : — 

Q 2 



228 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

i. A piece of cane sugar is moistened with a small 
quantity of the sample and exposed to the heat of the 
water-bath for some time, when, in presence of free sulphuric 
acid, the residue will become more or less carbonised, 
according to the proportion of acid present. 

2. Five centigrammes of pulverised starch are dissolved 
in a decilitre of the sample by boiling, and after the liquid 
has become completely cooled, a few drops of iodine 
solution are added. Dilute acetic acid does not affect 
starch, and if the sample is pure, a blue coloration will be 
produced ; if, however, but a minute quantity of sulphuric 
or other mineral acid is present, the starch is converted 
into dextrine, and the addition of iodine fails to cause the 
blue coloration. 

3. According to Hilger,* if two drops of a very dilute 
solution of methyl aniline violet (o * I to 100) are added to 
about 25 ex. of pure vinegar no change of colour takes place ; 
whereas, in the presence of o • 2 per cent, of mineral acid, a 
bluish coloration is produced ; in case the proportion of 
acid reaches 1 per cent, the liquid acquires a greenish tint. 

4. A recent test for mineral acids has been suggested by 
Hager.f It consists in warming together two drops of 
East Indian copaiba balsam, and 30 drops of pure acetic 
acid, and subsequently adding to the mixture two or three 
drops of the vinegar under examination ; if either sulphuric 
or hydrochloric acid be present, a blue-violet colour is 
produced. 

The free mineral acids in vinegar may be quantitatively 
estimated by saturating a weighed quantity of the sample 
with quinine, evaporating the mixture to dryness over the 
water-bath, and dissolving the quinine salts formed in 
alcohol, which is then removed by distillation. The second 
residue is next dissolved in water, and the quinine precipi- 
tated by addition of ammonia, and separated by filtration. 

* Archiv. der Pharm., 1876, p. 193. 
t Pharm. Centralb., N.F. 7, p. 292. 



VINEGAR. 2 29 

The filtrate will contain the mineral acids present, 
and their amount is determined by the ordinary methods. 
The free sulphuric acid in vinegar can also be quantita- 
tively estimated, according to Kohnstein,* as follows : 100 c.c, 
of the sample are shaken with pure and freshly calcined 
magnesia until completely neutralised. The mixture is 
filtered, the filtrate evaporated to dryness in a platinum 
dish and the residue ignited at a moderate temperature. 
By this treatment magnesium acetate is converted into 
the corresponding carbonate, while any magnesium sul- 
phate present will remain unaltered. The ignited residue 
is moistened and evaporated with a little carbonic acid 
water, then digested with hot water, and the solution 
filtered ; the insoluble magnesium carbonate remains upon 
the filter, the sulphate going in solution ; the precipitate is 
thoroughly washed. After removing the traces of lime 
possibly present, the amount of magnesia contained in the 
filtrate is determined as pyrophosphate, from the weight 
of which the proportion of free sulphuric acid originally 
contained is calculated. The presence of metallic im- 
purities in vinegar is detected by means of the usual 
reagents, such as hydrosulphuric acid and ammonium 
sulphide. In' addition to water and sulphuric acid, the 
most common adulterants of vinegar are capsicum, sul- 
phurous acid and various colouring matters. The presence 
of capsicum and other acrid substances is usually revealed 
by the pungent odour produced upon burning the solid 
residue obtained by the evaporation of the sample to 
dryness, and by the peculiar taste of the residue. Sul- 
phurous acid is sometimes detected by its characteristic 
odour ; its determination is described on p. 177. 

Caramel is recognised by extracting the solid residue 

with alcohol, and evaporating the solution to dryness; in 

its presence, the residue now obtained will possess a 

decidedly dark colour, and a bitter taste. Fuchsine, which 

* Dingl. Poly. Journ., 256, p. 129. 



230 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 



is said to have been employed for colouring vinegar, is 
detected by the tests mentioned under Wine. 

As already stated, a very large proportion of vinegar is 
made in the United States from spirituous liquors. It is 
probable that fully 90 per cent, of the total production is 
obtained by the acetification of whisky. Much of this 
product is mixed with cider vinegar, or simply coloured 
with caramel, and then put on the market as apple 
vinegar. It is certain that the manufacturers of whisky 
vinegar, who are permitted by law to make " low wines " 
on their premises, without being subjected to the usual 
Internal Revenue Tax, are frequently enabled to perpetrate 
a fraud on the Government by disposing of the spirits so 
produced to the whisky trade, instead of converting it 
wholly into vinegar. To so great an extent is this prac- 
tice carried on, that many of the cider vinegar producers 
have found it impossible to successfully compete with the 
less scrupulous manufacturers. Whisky vinegar is nearly 
colourless, usually possesses a greater strength than cider 
vinegar, and is free from malic acid. Cider vinegar ex- 
hibits a light-brownish colour and a characteristic odour. 
Some of the differences between these two varieties are 
shown by the following results, obtained by the author by 
the examination of samples of pure apple and whisky 
vinegar, fresh from the factories : — 



Cider Vinegar. 



Whisky Vinegar. 



Specific gravity 

Specific gravity of distillate! 

from neutralised sample . . / 

Acetic acid 

Total solids 

Mineral ash 

Potassa in ash 

Phosphoric acid in ash 
Heated with Fehling's solu-j 

tion J 

Treated with basic lead) 

acetate / 



1-0168 

0-9985 

4-66 p. c. 

2-70 „ 

o • 20 „ 

Considerable 

Considerable 

Copious 

reduction 

Flocculent 

precipitate 



1-0107 
0-9973 

7*36 p. c. 

o'i5 „ 
0-038 „ 

None 

None 

I No reduction 
j. No precipitate 



VINEGAR. 23I 

Naturally the addition of caramel or cider vinegar to 
whisky vinegar would greatly affect the above tests. 

Attempts made to differentiate between the two samples 
by means of qualitative reactions for aldehyde and malic 
acid were not sufficiently distinctive in their results to be 
of much value. 

It has been suggested that the presence of nitrates in 
vinegar would point to its origin from spirits. The apple 
vinegar manufacturer, however, frequently finds his product 
above the standard, in which case he reduces its strength 
by adding water, thus rendering this test of little or no 
avail. 

Regarding the addition of mineral acids to vinegar in 
the United States, it is satisfactory to note that, of a large 
number of samples tested by the New York City Vinegar 
Inspector during the past year, not a single sample was 
found to contain these adulterants. 

Fermented infusions of molasses, " black strap," etc., are 
occasionally employed in the manufacture of vinegar. 
The product obtained from these sources has been found 
in some instances to contain acrid and probably noxious 
ingredients. 



232 FOOD ADULTERATION. 



PICKLES. 

The examination of pickles naturally includes a determi- 
nation of the character of the vinegar used in their pre- 
paration. This is made by the methods just described. 
The practice of imparting a bright green colour to pickles 
which have become bleached by long preservation in brine 
or by other means, is doubtless still prevalent, and calls 
for a brief notice. The greening of pickles is effected 
either by the direct addition of cupric sulphate to the 
water in which they are heated, or by introducing some 
form of metallic copper into the bath. Alum is stated to 
be also occasionally employed for the same purpose. The 
presence of copper is readily detected by incinerating a 
rather considerable quantity of the pickles, treating the 
ash with a little nitric acid and adding an excess of ammo- 
nium hydroxide to the solution, when, in presence of the 
metal, a blue coloration will be produced. The quantita- 
tive estimation of copper is made by boiling the residue, 
obtained by the evaporation of the vinegar or the incinera- 
tion of the pickles, with dilute nitric acid, adding a small 
quantity of sulphuric acid and expelling the excess of 
nitric acid by evaporating nearly to dryness. The solu- 
tion is next diluted with water, filtered, and the filtrate 
placed in a platinum capsule. The copper is then depo- 
sited by electrolysis. In the Report of the Brooklyn 
Board of Health for the year 1885, a case is recorded 
where a child ate a portion of a pickle coloured with 
cupric sulphate (containing an estimated quantity of 
2\ grains of the salt), with fatal results. 



( 233 ) 



OLIVE OIL. 

Olive Oil is extracted from the pericarp of the fruit of the 
Olea Europea. When pure, it exhibits a pale yellow or 
greenish colour, has a specific gravity of 0*9176, and 
possesses a faint, pleasant odour and a bland and agreeable 
taste. It is insoluble in water, very slightly in alcohol, but 
dissolves in about i^ parts of ether. Olive oil boils at 
3 1 5°, and begins to deposit white granules at io°; at o°, it 
solidifies to a solid mass which, by pressure, may be 
separated into tripalmetine and trioleine. Upon saponi- 
fication, it is decomposed into oleic, palmetic, and stearic 
acids and glycerine. The best-known varieties of olive oil 
met with in commerce, in the order of their quality, are — 
Provence, Florence, Lucca, Genoa, Gallipoli, Sicily, and 
Spanish.* 

Owing to the high price of the pure article, and perhaps 
to the difficulty experienced in detecting foreign admix- 
tures, olive oil is probably more extensively adulterated 
than any substance of general consumption. The oils 
most employed as adulterants are those of cotton-seed, 
poppy, pea-nut, sesame, rape-seed, arachis, and lard. 
Although the subject of the adulteration of olive oil has 
received the attention of numerous chemists, including 
several of exceptionally high standing, the results obtained, 
while of service in indicating the presence of some foreign 
oil, are unfortunately often of but little use in the posi- 
tive identification of the particular adulterant used. Of the 

* It has been stated that American olive oil of superior excellence 
is made in the States of N.C., Miss, and Cal. ; but this product does 
not, as yet, appear to be generally known on the New York market. 



234 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

many methods of examination that have been suggested, 
the following are the most satisfactory : — 

1. Specific gravity. — The density of olive oil is lower 
than that of the majority of the oils with which it is 
mixed, and it is sometimes possible to detect the presence 
of the latter by means of this property, especially when 
they are contained in a considerable proportion. Cotton- 
seed oil differs more in specific gravity than the other 
oils generally employed as adulterants. Donny* applies 
the test by placing in the suspected sample a drop of 
olive oil of known purity which has been dyed with 
ground alkanet root, and observing whether it remains 
stationary. A more satisfactory method is to determine 
the density by the gravity bottle. The following tabulation 
gives the densities (at 1 5°) of olive and several other oils 
liable to be met with as admixtures v-^ 

Olive oil '914 to '917 

Poppy oil -924 „ -927 

Cotton-seed oil '922 „ -930 

Sweet almond oil.. .. .. '914,, '920 

Arachis oil '916 „ '920 

Colza oil '914 „ '916 

Sesame* oil '921 „ '924 

Rape-seed oil '914 „ '916 

Lard oil '915 

2. Solidifying point. — Attempts have been made to utilise 
the fact that some of the oils added to olive congeal at 
a lower temperature than the pure oil. Thus, cotton-seed 
oil solidifies at -22°, ground-nut oil at — 33 , poppy 
at -1 8°. 

3. Elaidin and colour tests. — Pure olive oil is converted 
into a solid mass when treated with various oxidising 
agents, the change being retarded by the presence of 
some of its adulterants. The test may be made in 
several ways : — 

* Frens. Zeitsch. 3, 1864, p. 513. 



OLIVE OIL. 



235 



{a) Ten grms. of the sample are shaken with 5 grms. 
of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1*40) and 1 grm. of mercury, and 
the colour produced and time required for solidification 
noticed. In this manner the following results have been 
obtained : — 



Oil. 


Coloration. 


Minutes for 
Solidification. 


Olive 

Almond 

Arachis 

Rape 

Cotton-seed 

Sesame* 

Beech-nut 

Poppy 


Pale yellowish green 

White 

Pale reddish 

Orange 

Orange red . 

Yellowish orange 

Reddish orange 

Red 


60 
90 
I05 
200 
I05 
ISO 
360 

/ Remains 
\ fluid. 



(b) Or a few pieces of copper foil are added to a mixture 
of equal parts of the oil and nitric acid, the liquor 
occasionally stirred, and then set aside. If the oil be 
pure, it will be converted into a nearly white buttery 
mass in from three to six hours ; sesame oil yields a 
red, cotton and rape -seed a brown, and beech -nut a 
reddish-yellow colour, the solidification being delayed from 
10 to 20 hours, while poppy oil fails to solidify at all. 

(c) Nine parts of the sample are oxidised by heating 
with one part of concentrated nitric acid, the mixture being 
well stirred ; pure olive oil forms a hard, pale-yellow mass 
in the course of two hours ; seed oils (including cotton- 
seed) turn orange-red in colour and do not become solid 
in the same time or manner. 

(d) A portion of the sample is well mixed with one- 
fourth of its weight of chromic acid ; if pure, the oil will 
be converted into an opaque mass. 

(e) Introduce 2 c.c. of the sample into a narrow gradu- 
ated glass cylinder, add o " 1 gramme potassium dichro- 
mate, next 2 c.c. of a mixture of sulphuric and nitric 



236 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

acids, shake well, and then add 1 c.c. of ether ; shake again 
and allow the mixture to stand at rest. Lively efferves 
cence and evolution of nitrous fumes soon take place 
and the oil rises to the surface, showing a characteristic 
coloration. Olive oil exhibits a green colour, whereas in 
presence of 5 per cent, of sesame, arachis, cotton-seed, or 
poppy oil, the colours will vary from greenish-yellow to 
yellow or yellowish red. The coloration is more readily 
observed upon agitating the mixture with water and 
setting it aside for a short time. 

(/) Several portions of the oil are placed upon a 
porcelain slab and separately treated with a few drops of 
concentrated sulphuric acid, nitric acid, and a solution of 
potassium dichromate in sulphuric acid, and notice taken 
of the colours produced, comparative tests being simul- 
taneously made with olive oil of undoubted purity. 

(g) The presence of sesame oil is readily detected by 
the formation of a deep green colour when the oil is 
agitated with a mixture of equal parts of nitric and sul- 
phuric acid. 

(ft) Upon mixing samples containing cotton-seed oil 
with an equal volume of nitric acid (40 B.) a coffee-like 
colour is produced. Olive oil gives a pale green, rape 
and nut, a pale rose, and sesame oil a white-coloured 
mixture. 

The presence of rape- and cotton-seed oils may also be 
detected as follows : — Dissolve o * 1 gramme silver nitrate 
in a very little water, and add about 4 c.c. of absolute 
alcohol. This solution is added to the sample of olive 
oil to be tested, the mixture well shaken and put aside 
for one or two hours ; it is then to be heated for a 
few minutes. If cotton-seed or rape-seed oil is present, 
the oily stratum which separates on standing will exhibit 
a brownish-red or blackish colour, due to the reduction of 
silver. Olive oil fails to cause an appreciable coloration. 
Experiments made by the author with samples of olive oil 



1 

: 



OLIVE OIL. 237 

containing 10 per cent, of cotton-seed and rape-seed oils 
furnished the following results : — On standing one hour, 
without heating, the mixture containing cotton-seed oil 
showed a slightly dark colour, that adulterated with rape- 
seed oil a decidedly dark colour ; upon the application 
of heat, the former exhibited a dark-red colour, while the 
latter turned quite black. 

Maumene's test. — This test is founded upon the fact that 
the elevation of temperature caused by mixing olive oil 
with strong sulphuric acid is considerably less than that 
produced with the oils commonly employed as its adul- 
terants. With these latter an evolution of sulphurous acid 
generally takes place, which is not the case with pure olive 
oil. The best method of procedure is as follows : — 10 c.c. 
of sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1 ■ 844) are gradually added to 
50 grammes of the sample, the mixture being constantly 
stirred with a small thermometer, and observations made 
of the maximum increase of temperature produced, as well 
as of the evolution of gas. When treated in this manner, 
genuine olive oil causes an elevation of about 42 ; that 
given by various other oils, often added to it, ranges from 
5 2° to 103 , and it is frequently possible to recognise their 
presence in admixtures by the high temperature produced. 
The following are the increases of temperature observed 
by L. Archbutt : — olive, 41-45 ; rape, 55-64; arachis, 
47-60 ; sesame, 65 ; cotton-seed (crude) 70 ; (refined), 
75-76 ; poppy-seed, 86-88 ; menhaden, 123-128. In the 
Paris Municipal Laboratory an acid of 1*834 sp. gr. is 
used, and the following heating powers are regarded as 
standards: — For olive oil, 55*5°; for cotton-seed, 69*5° 
for nut, 62 ; for sesame, 66° ; for poppy oil, 73 . 

The application of Hubl's test for butter (see p. 75) is 
one of the most useful means for the detection of foreign 
oils in olive oil. The iodine absorption number of the 
pure oil is considerably below that of its most common 
adulterants. 



238 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

The prevalence of the adulteration of olive oil has been 
abundantly demonstrated. Of 232 samples examined by 
the New York and Massachusetts State Boards of Health, 
165 (71 per cent.) were spurious. It is a notorious 
fact that large quantities of cotton-seed oil are exported 
from the United States to France and Italy, much of 
which returns home under the guise of the genuine product 
of the olive. 






( 239 ) 



MUSTARD. 

Mustard is the product obtained by crushing and sifting 
the seeds of Sinapis nigra and Sinapis alba, of the genus 
Brassicacese. In the manufacture of the condiment, both 
the black and white seeds are used. According to analyses 
made by Piesse and Stansell,* fine grades of the two 
varieties of mustard possess the following composition : — 



Black Mustard. 



White Mustard. 



Moisture 

Fixed oil or fat 

Cellulose 

Sulphur 

Nitrogen 

Albuminoids 
Myrosin and albumen 
Soluble matter 

Volatile oil 

Potassium myronate . . 

Ash 

Soluble ash 



per cent. 

4'52 

38'02 

2*06 

1-48 

5-01 

30-25 
6-78 

32-78 
1-50 
5*36 
4-84 
0-98 



per cent. 

5-78 

35 74 

4-i5 

I'22 

4-8 9 
30-56 

6-67 
36-60 

0*04 

4v3I 
0-55 



Clifford Richardson regards the following proportions of 
the more prominent constituents of pure mustard flour as 
a basis for detecting adulterations : — 

Per cent. 

Water 5'ootoio'oo 

Ash 4*00 „ 6*oo 

Fixed oil 33'oo „ 37*00 

Volatile oil 0*25 „ i*oo 

Crude fibre 0*50 „ 2*00 

Nitrogen 4-50 „ 6 # oo 

The following results were obtained by Messrs. Waller 
* ' Analyst,' 1880, p. 161. 



24O FOOD ADULTERATION. 

and Martin from the examination of 14 samples of very low 
grade dry mustard, as found on the New York market : * — 

Per cent. 

Moisture, ranged from 5*43 to 9*86 

Fixed oil „ „ 6*8i „ 22*56 

Total ash „ „ 2*05 „ 16*05 

Soluble ash „ „ 0*15 „ 2*90 

Insoluble ash „ „ 1*69 „ 13*15 

Eight samples were coloured with turmeric, 4 with 
Marthas' yellow, 12 contained starch, and 5 showed the 
presence of calcium sulphate. 

The article usually sold as mustard is a mixture of 
mustard farina, prepared from different varieties of the 
seed, with wheaten flour or starch, and turmeric. It is 
claimed by the manufacturers that pure mustard possesses 
too acrid a taste to be suitable for use as a condiment; 
and its admixture with the foregoing substances is so 
generally resorted to and recognised, that the New York 
State Board of Health, in 1883, legally sanctioned the 
practice, provided the fact is distinctly stated upon the 
label of the packages. Other prevalent forms of sophis- 
tication consist in the partial extraction of the fixed 
oil from the mustard before its introduction on the market, 
and in the addition of cocoa-nut shells, terra alba, and 
" Martius' yellow " (potassium dinitronaphthalate). The 
latter colouring matter is specially objectionable, being 
poisonous in its action. The presence of organic admix- 
tures is usually recognised upon a microscopic examina- 
tion of the sample. The anatomical structure of mustard 
seed is described by Fluckigen and Hamburg in 'Pharma- 
cographia.' Wheaten flour or starch is readily identified 
by the iodine test. The following methods are employed 
for the detection of turmeric : — 

1. A portion of the sample is agitated with castor oil 
and filtered. In case turmeric is present, the filtrate will 
exhibit a marked greenish fluorescence. 

* • Analyst,' ix. p. 166. 



MUSTARD. 241 

2. Upon treating the suspected sample with ammonium 
hydroxide, an orange-red colour is produced in presence of 
turmeric. Or, the mustard is boiled with methylic alcohol, 
the extract filtered, evaporated to dryness, and the residue 
treated with hydrochloric acid ; if turmeric be present, an 
orange-red coloration takes place, which changes to a 
bluish-green upon adding an excess of sodium hydroxide. 
In addition to the above qualitative tests, valuable indica- 
tions regarding the purity of mustard are to be obtained by 
the determination of the proportions of fixed oil, sulphur, 
and ash contained in the sample under examination. 

Fixed Oil. — The amount of fixed oil is estimated by 
digesting a weighed portion of the mustard with ether in 
a closed vessel, filtering, and determining the weight of 
the residue left upon evaporating the ethereal solution to 
dryness over the water-bath. The oil possesses a specific 
gravity ranging from 0*915 to 0*920. The percentage of 
fixed oil in pure mustard is very considerable (usually 
over 34 per cent), whereas the substances commonly 
added contain but a very small quantity. In case wheaten 
flour has been employed as an adulterant, the proportion 
of pure mustard (x) in a mixed sample, can be approxi- 
mately calculated by the following formulae, in which y 
is the fixed amount of oil contained.* 

33*9* 1*2(100-*) 

-r = y, 

IOO IOO •" 

36* 7 X 2* (IOO - x) 

-f = y. 

IOO IOO ' 

In the absence of flour, a low percentage of fixed oil 
indicates the presence of exhausted mustard cake. 

Sulphur. — Blyth determines the total sulphur by oxida- 
tion with fuming nitric acid, diluting the liquid considerably 
with water, filtering and precipitating the sulphates formed 
by means of barium chloride. The proportion of sulphates 

* Blyth, op. cit. 



242 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

(in terms of barium sulphate) found in the ash is to be 
deducted from the weight of the precipitate obtained ; the 
remainder, multiplied by 0*1373, gives the amount of sul- 
phur present in organic combination, and, as the quantity- 
contained in this form in mustard is far greater than in any 
of the substances employed for its adulteration, the estima- 
tion is frequently very useful. 

Ash. — The amount of ash is determined in the usual 
manner, i.e. by the incineration of a weighed portion in 
a platinum capsule. Genuine mustard contains about 5 per 
cent, of ash, of which nearly 1 per cent, is soluble in water. 
In presence of inorganic impurities, the quantity of ash is 
naturally increased, while a proportion under 4 per cent, is 
usually considered an indication of organic admixture. 

The composition of the ash of mustard seed is given 
below : — 

Per cent. 

Potassa .. 16*15 

Lime .. 19*24 

Magnesia 10*51 

Ferric oxide 0*99 

Phosphoric acid 39*92 

Sulphuric acid .. .. .. .. .. 4*92 

Chlorine 0*53 

Silica 2*48 

The adulteration of mustard is very extensively practised. 
Of 18 samples bought at random in the shops and tested for 
the New York State Board of Health, 12 were found to be 
impure ; of 88 samples, examined in the year 1 884 by the 
Massachusetts State Board, 20 were compounds (labelled 
as such, but in a manner designed to deceive the purchaser). 
37 were adulterated with flour, turmeric, and, in some cases, 
with cayenne, and 31 were found to be pure ; in 1885, 211 
samples were tested, of which 124 were sophisticated ; of 
27 samples tested by the National Board of Health, 21 
contained foreign admixtures, consisting chiefly of wheat 
or flour and turmeric, but also including corn-starch, rice, 
cayenne, and plaster of Paris. 



( 2 43 ) 



PEPPER. 

Black Pepper is the dried unripe berry of Piper nigrum ; 
white pepper, which is much less in use, being the same 
fruit deprived of its outer skin by maceration in water and 
friction. The more important constituents of pepper are 
an alkaloid (piperin), the volatile oil, and the resin, and 
upon these ingredients its value as a condiment depends. 
The partial composition of genuine pepper, as given by 
Blyth, is shown below : — 



Variety. 



Penang 
Tellicherry 
Sumatra 
Malabar 



Moisture. 



per cent. 

9*53 
12-90 
io-io 
10-54 



Piperin. 



per cent. 

5*57 

4-67 
4-70 
4"63 



Resin. 



per cent 

2-08 
I -70 
1-74 
1-74 



Aqueous 
Extract. 



per cent. 

18-33 
16-50 
17-59 
20-37 



Ash. 



Soluble. Total 



per cent, 
2'2I 
3-38 
2-62 

3'45 



per cent. 
4*l8 

5*77 

4'3i 
5-19 



The percentages of piperin, resin, extract, and ash are 
calculated on the sample dried at ioo°. Konig's analysis 
of pepper is as follows : — 

Per cent. 

Water 17-01 

Nitrogenous substances I][ '99 

Volatile oil 1*12 

Fat 8-82 

Other non-nitrogenous substances 42*02 

Cellulose H'49 

Ash 4'57to 5-00 

R 2 



244 




FOOD ADULTERATION. 










Heisch * 


has analysed several varieties of pure and 


commercial 


pepper, with the following results : — 










Ash 


Ash 


Ash 
Insol- 
uble. 


Alka- 




Alco- 








Water. 


Total 
Ash. 


Soluble 
in 


Soluble 
in 


linity 
as 


Starch. 


holic 
Ex- 


Piper- 
in. 










Water. 


Acid. 


K 2 0. 




tract. 






per 


per 


per 


per 


per 


per 


per 


per 


per 






cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 




( 


9'22 


4*35 


i'54 


I'5I 


0-36 


0*72 


48-53 


10 '47 


4-05 


Black berry . . 


- 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 




1 


I4-36 


8-99 


3'34 


3-83 


4*38 


1-57 


56-67 


16-20 


9-38 




) 


13*67 


1-28 


0-217 


C84 


0*22 


o* 


76-27 


9-23 


5*13 


White berry.. 


- 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 






I7-32 


8-78 


0-618 


2-80 


0*69 


0*22 


77-68 


9-73 


6-14 


Fine ground (white) 


I3-90 


1-58 


0*16 


0*90 


0-52 


O'O 


75-31 


10 -66 


4-51 


Long pepper 


.. 


12-15 


I3-48 


2*28 


5-52 


5-68 


0'53 


58-78 


8-29 


1-71 


Adulterated ground 


IIM2 


14-70 


2*02 


4-07 


8-6i 


0-78 


35-85 


11-57 


2*02 



The same authority regards 50 per cent, of starch as the 
minimum standard for unadulterated pepper. The granules 
of pepper-starch are characterised by their exceedingly 
small size, being only about • 008 mm. in diameter. 

The proportion of ash in genuine pepper seldom exceeds 
7 per cent., of which not over -^th should consist of sand ; 
but in the commercial article, the total ash often approxi- 
mates 10 or 12 per cent., 40 or 50 per cent, of which is sand 
and other insoluble substances. 

Composition of Pepper Ash. 

Potassa 31*36 

Soda 4-56 

Magnesia .. 16-34 

Lime H"59 

Ferric oxide 0-38 

Phosphoric acid .. .. ;. .. 10*85 

Sulphuric acid 12*09 

Chlorine .. ... .. 9-52 

The list of adulterations used as admixtures to pepper, as 
well as to most other ground condiments and spices, is quite 
extensive, and includes such cheap and neutral substances 
* 'Analyst,' 1886, p. 186. 



PEPPER. 245 

as ship-bread, corn, ground cocoanut shells, beans, peas, 
hulls of mustard seed, sand, etc., etc. It is stated that in 
England large quantities of preparations consisting of 
linseed-meal, mustard husks and rice-meal, known to the 
trade respectively as P.D., H.P.D., and W.P.D., are very 
generally employed in the adulteration of pepper. P.D. 
(pepper-dust), would appear to also signify the sweepings 
collected from pepper factories, and sometimes fortified 
with cayenne, the manufacture of which article has given 
rise to a special industry. It is utilised as a diluent of 
the various spices, the sophisticated products being sold 
as "P.D. pepper," "P.D. cloves," "P.D. cinnamon," etc. 
Unfortunately the character of most of the adulterants 
of pepper, as of other spices, is such, that little assistance 
is afforded the analyst by chemical tests. A microscopic 
examination of the suspected sample furnishes far more 
trustworthy information and should in all instances be 
employed, comparative observations being made with an 
article of known purity. 

The appearance of several of the starch granules of 
various flours often found in adulterated condiments and 
spices is represented in Plate IX. 

In the special case of pepper, it is of advantage to make 
chemical determinations of the moisture, ash, piperin and 
resin. 

Moisture. — The proportion of moisture is estimated by the 
ordinary method of drying a weighed portion of the pepper 
in a platinum capsule at 100°, and noting the loss in weight 
sustained. 

Ash. — The dry sample is incinerated, and the amount of 
mineral residue determined. As already intimated, the 
proportion of sand present is of especial import. 

Piperin and Resin. — The pepper is repeatedly digested 
with absolute alcohol, the mixture filtered and the filtrate 
evaporated to dryness over a water-bath. The extract is 
weighed and then treated with sodium hydroxide solution, 



246 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

in which the resin is soluble. The alkaline liquid is then 
removed, and the remaining piperin dissolved in alcohol, 
the solution filtered, evaporated to dryness, and the weight 
of the residue determined. The proportion of piperin in 
unadulterated pepper ranges from 4*5 to 5 • 5 per cent., 
that of resin from 1 • 7 to 2 per cent. 

Niederstadt,* from the results of his investigations, 
concludes, that genuine pepper should yield as much as 
J'66 per cent, of piperin, and employs this factor for 
estimating the purity of mixtures; thus, a sample adul- 
terated with palm kernels and husks, to the extent of 
about 80 per cent., contained but I ' 62 per cent, of piperin. 

Pepper contains a greater proportion of starch than some 
of the substances employed in its adulteration. The fol- 
lowing method, suggested by Lenz,f may be used for the 
determination of this constituent : — 4 grammes of the 
sample are digested for several hours in a flask with 
250 c.c. of water, with occasional shaking, and the decoc- 
tion decanted upon a filter. The residue is washed and 
returned to the flask, which is filled with water to a volume 
of 200 c.c, 20 c.c. of hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. i'i2i) are 
added, the flask connected with an ascending Liebig's 
condenser, and heated on the water-bath for three hours. 
After cooling, the contents of the flask are filtered into a 
half-litre flask, and the filtrate carefully neutralised with 
sodium hydroxide and diluted up to the 500 c.c. mark. It is 
finally tested by Fehling's solution. The clarification of the 
hot solution is assisted by the addition of a few drops of zinc 
chloride. Lenz obtained by this process the following per- 
centages of sugar, calculated on the ash-free substances : — 

Black pepper 52 

White pepper 60 

Palm-nut meal 22*6 

Pepper husks 16*3 



* Rep. anal. Chem., iii. p. 68. 

t Zeit. f. anal. Chem., 1884, p. 501. 



PEPPER. 247 

The application of this method to the examination of com- 
mercial American peppers, when they contain as adulterants 
substances rich in starch, is obviously of little value. A 
sample of German pepper, sold as " Pfefferbruck" recently 
analysed by Hilger,* had the following composition : — 

Per cent. 

Pepper husks 50 

Palm nut meal 30 

Pepper dust 15 

Paprika 1 

Brick-dust 4 

Cayenne Pepper. — Cayenne pepper is the ground berry 
and pods of Capsicum annuum. Its well-known active pro- 
perties, which were formerly ascribed to an acrid oil 
termed capsicin, have lately been shown to be due to the 
presence of the crystalline compound capsaicin (C 9 H 14 5 ), 
fusing at 55 , and capable of volatilisation at 115 without 
decomposition. The proportion of moisture in cayenne 
pepper is about 12 per cent.; the alcoholic and ethereal 
extracts should approximate, respectively, 25 and 9 per 
cent. The ash ranges from 5*5 to 6 per cent, of which 
nearly one-half should be soluble in water. Strohmer f has 
analysed Hungarian cayenne, known as " Paprika " ; his 
results were as follows : — 



Water and volatile matter at 100° .. 
Nitrogenous substances, as protein .. 

Fat 

Ethereal extract (free of nitrogen) .. 

Fibre .. .. . 

Ash 

Nitrogen 



Seeds. 


Husks. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


8-12 


14*75 


I8-3I 


10-69 


28-54 


5-48 


24'33 


38-73 


I7-50 


23'73 


3'20 


6-62 


2-93 


171 



Entire 
Fruit. 



per cent. 

11-94 
13-88 
15-26 
32-63 
21-09 
5- 20 

2'22 



* Archiv. der Pharm., 233, p. 825. 
t Chem. Centralb., 1884, p. 577. 



248 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 



A commercial brand of the same article had the follow- 
ing composition : — 

Per cent 

Volatile at i oo° 12*69 

Nitrogenous substances, as protein 13* 19 

Ethereal extract 13 '35 

Ash 7*14 

The organic adulterants sometimes met with in cayenne 
(flour, mustard seed, husks, etc.), are detected by means of 
the microscope. Among the mineral substances said to be 
employed as colouring agents, such as iron ochre, brick- 
dust, red lead, and vermilion, the two former are of more 
frequent occurrence, and may be recognised upon an exami- 
nation of the ash obtained by the incineration of the 
sample. 

An adulterant of pepper, known in the trade as " Poiv- 
rette " or " Pepperette," has recently made its appearance 
in England. It forms a cream-coloured powder, much 
resembling the inner layer of the pepper-berry in bulk and 
cellular structure, is exported from Italy, and evidently 
consists of ground olive-stones, as is indicated by the 
following analyses, made by J. Campbell Brown : * — 



Ash. 



Matters 
Soluble 
by boil- 
ing in 
Dilute 
Acid. 



Albumin- 
ous and 
other 
matters 
Soluble 

in Alkali. 



Woody 
Fibre In- 
soluble in 
Acid and 

Alkali. 



Starch. 



White pepperette 
Black pepperette . . 
Ground almond shells 
Ground olive stones . 



i'33 

2-47 

2'05 

r " 



•61 



38-32 
34*55 

23'53 
39-08 



14*08 
17*66 

24*79 
15-04 



48-48 
47-69 
51-68 
45-38 



None 



The extent to which the various forms of pepper are 
fraudulently contaminated in the United States is illus- 
trated by the fact that, out of 386 samples of the condi- 
ment examined by the chemists of the New York, Mas- 
sachusetts and National State Boards of Health, 236 (or 
about 61 per cent.) were found to be adulterated. 
* ' Analyst,' Feb. 1887, p. 23 ; Mar. p. 47. 



( 2 49 ) 



SPICES. 

As is the case with mustard and pepper, the adulteration of 
the ordinary spices is exceedingly prevalent in the United 
States. Probably those most subject to admixture, are 
cloves, mace, cinnamon, allspice, and ginger. The fact that 
these condiments are frequently offered for sale in a ground 
state furnishes an opportunity to incorporate with them 
various cheaper vegetable substances, of which the manu- 
facturer too often makes use. For the detection of these 
additions the use of the microscope is of pre-eminent im- 
portance ; and, in this regard, no more useful information 
could be afforded than by quoting the following remarks, 
furnished to the author by Clifford Richardson, Assistant 
Chemist of the United States Department of Agriculture, 
who has lately made a valuable contribution to the literature 
of spice adulteration.* 

" Spices consist of certain selected parts of aromatic or 
pungent plants possessing a characteristic anatomical struc- 
ture and proximate composition which, when they have 
been carefully studied and recorded, serve as a means of 
recognising the pure substances when under examination, 
and distinguishing them from the different structure and com- 
position of the adulterants which have been added to them. 

" To carry on an investigation of this description a limited 
knowledge of botanical physiology (as well as of proximate 
chemical analysis) is therefore necessary. For the physio- 
logical part, the use of the microscope, as a means of de- 
termining structure, is necessary. 

" The structure of the plant parts which constitute the 
spices and their adulterants as well, is characterised by the 

* Bulletin No. 13, Part 2, Chemical Division ; United States De- 
partment of Agriculture. 



25O FOOD ADULTERATION. 

presence or absence of different forms of cells and of starch, 
and their relative arrangement. At least, this is as far as 
it is necessary to go from the analyst's point of view. 
By studies of sections of pure whole spices one must be- 
come familiar with the forms usually met with in the spices 
and those which are prominent in adulterants and be able to 
recognise the presence of starch and by the character of the 
granules to determine their source. 

"The common forms of cells which are met with in 
the spices, and with which one should be familiar, are 
known as parenchyma cells, sclerenchyma cells, those of 
fibro-vascular bundles, spiral and dotted cells, and those of 
peculiar form in the cortex and epidermis. 

" Parenchyma consists of thin-walled cells, such as are well 
illustrated in the interior of a corn-stalk and are found in the 
centre of the pepper kernel. They are often filled with 
starch, as in the cereals and pepper, but at times are without 
it, as in the mustard seed. 

" Sclerenchyma, or stone cells, are of a ligneous character, 
their walls being greatly thickened. They are commoner 
in the adulterants than in the spices, and are well illustrated 
in the shell of the cocoa-nut, in clove stems, and a few are 
seen in pepper hulls. 

" Spiral and Dotted Cells are found in woody tissue, and 
their characteristics are denoted by their names. They are 
more commonly found in adulterants, and their presence in 
large amounts is conclusive, in many instances, of impurity. 
They may be seen in sections of cedar-wood and in cocoa- 
nut shells, and to a small extent in pepper husks. 

" The Fibro-vascular Bundles, as their name implies, are 
aggregations which appear to the eye, in some instances, as 
threads running through the tissue of the plant. They are 
easily seen in the cross-section of the corn-stalk, and are 
common in ground ginger, having resisted comminution 
from their fibrous nature. They are made up of cells of 
various forms. 



SPICES. 251 

" The Cells of the Cortex and Epidermis are in many cases 
extremely characteristic in form, and of great value for 
distinguishing the origin of the substances under examina- 
tion. They are too numerous in shape to be particularly 
described, and are well illustrated in the husk of mustard, 
and the pod of Capsicum or cayenne. 

" Other forms of tissue are also met with, but not so 
prominently as to render it advisable to burden the memory 
with them at first, or to seek them before they are met. 

"These forms of cells and their combinations which have 
been described, present in addition some peculiarities, aside 
from their structure, which assist in distinguishing them. 

" Parenchyma is optically inactive, and is not stained by 
iodine solution, except in so far as its contents are concerned. 
Sclerenchyma, the stone cell, is optically active, and in the 
dark field of the microscope, with crossed Nicols, appears as 
shining silvery cells, displaying their real structure. The 
fibro-vascular bundles are stained yellowish brown by iodine, 
and are thus differentiated from the surrounding tissue. 

" Starch is stained a deep blue, or blue black, by iodine 
solution, and since the contents of the parenchyma cells 
often consist of much starch, the parenchyma in these cases 
seems to assume this colour. 

"To distinguish some of the peculiarities of structure 
which have been mentioned requires some little practice 
and skill, but not more than is readily acquired with a short 
experience. There are however some aids which should 
not be neglected. 

" In the ground spices it will be found more difficult to 
recognise the anatomy of the parts than in a carefully 
prepared section. The hardest parts are often the largest 
particles, and scarcely at all transparent. The mounting of 
the material in water or glycerine will render them more so, 
but it is necessary to employ some other means of which 
two are available. A solution of chloral hydrate in water, 
8 to 5, serves after 24 hours to make the particles less 



252 FOOD ADULTERATION. 

obscure. In many instances also, it has been found 
advisable. to bleach the deep colour by Schulze's method, 
using nitric acid of 1 * I sp. gr. and chlorate of potash. 
When this is done, hard tissue is broken down and rendered 
transparent where otherwise nothing could be seen. As 
examples, olive stones and cocoa-nut shells will serve. 
Without treatment little can be made out of their structure. 
" Of course, it is plain that the detection of starch must be 
in a portion of the material which has received no treat- 
ment, and that progress must be made from the least to 
the most violent reagents. 

" For this work an elaborate microscope is unnecessary. 
It should, for work with starches, have objectives of ^ and 
l inch equivalent focus, arrangements for polarising light, 
and if possible, a condenser system. Many good stands are 
to-day made at reasonable prices which will serve the 
purpose." 

The microscopical appearance of v?rious starches in 
polarised light is shown in Plate IX. Plate XII. exhibits 
several spices, under polarised light, in a pure and adul- 
terated state. Those represented are : — 

Ginger, pure, and adulterated with foreign starch. 
Cinnamon and Cassia ; the pure barks, ground, showing 
the relative greater frequency of fibro-vascular bundles in 
the former. 

Cayenne, pure, and adulterated with rice starch. 
The chemical analysis of spices, although usually of 
minor importance, often serves to confirm the results 
secured by aid of the microscope. The principal determina- 
tions required are the ash, oil, starch, and sugar. The 
more common forms of spice adulteration are the follow- 
ing :— 

Cloves. — This spice is said to be sometimes deprived of 
its volatile oil before being put on the market. In the 
genuine article, the proportion of oil seldom falls below 
1 7 per cent. The oil is readily estimated by distilling the sus- 



PLATE XII 




Cinnamon. 



Cassia. 





Cayenne. 



Cayenne Adulterated. 



SPICES. 



SPICES. 



253 



pected sample with water. The usual adulterants of ground 
cloves consist of clove-stems, allspice, flour and burnt shells. 

Mace. — True mace is frequently mixed with the false 
spice, the presence of which is indicated by its dark-red 
colour. The other foreign substances most commonly used 
are turmeric, wheaten flour, rice, corn meal, and roasted 
beans. 

Cinnamon. — The chief admixtures to be sought for are 
cassia, ground shells, crackers, etc. 

Allspice. — Owing to its cheapness, allspice is probably 
less adulterated than the preceding spices. The addition 
of mustard-husks, ground shells, and clove stems, and the 
removal of the volatile oil, are, however, sometimes 
practised. The oil in genuine allspice should amount to 
about 5 per cent. 

Ginger, — Ginger is likewise comparatively little exposed 
to sophistication, although it has occasionally been found 
coloured with turmeric, and admixed with corn meal, 
mustard-husks, cayenne, and clove stems. It is stated that 
the manufacturers of ginger extract dispose of the ex- 
hausted article to spice dealers who utilise the impoverished 
product for the adulteration of other spices. 

Mixed Spices. — These consist of mixtures of the fore- 
going, and are liable to the sophistications practised upon 
their ingredients, the addition of the cheaper flours and 
starches being especially prevalent. 

The following table shows the results of the examination 
of various spices, lately officially made in the States of 
New York and Massachusetts, and by the National Board 
of Health in Washington : — 





Number Ex- 
amined. 


Number 
Adulterated. 


Percentage 
Adulterated, 


Cloves 

Mace 

Cinnamon .. .. 

Allspice .. 

Ginger 


132 

79 
149 

90 
157 


60 

50 
78 

39 
40 


45*5 
66-3 
52-4 

43'3 
25-4 



254 FOOD ADULTERATION. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 

A VARIETY of articles of food, which do not properly come 
under any of the heads previously treated, have, during 
the past few years, been found on our markets in an adul- 
terated state. Prominent among these, are the various 
kinds of canned meats, fruits, and vegetables, which have 
not unfrequently been the cause of serious cases of illness. 
This result may be owing to the original bad condition of 
the goods, or to fermentation having taken place ; but, in 
many instances, the trouble has been traced to the improper 
methods of canning used, resulting in the contamination of 
the preserved articles with metallic poisons. The fact that 
fermentation has occurred is frequently indicated by the 
external appearance of the head of the can, which, in this 
case, will be slightly convex, instead of being, as it should 
be, concave. The metals most often detected in canned 
goods are lead, tin, and copper. The presence of lead is 
usually due to the use of an impure grade of tin, known as 
" terne.-plate," in the manufacture of the cans, or to care- 
lessness in the soldering process. The origin of copper is 
probably to be found in the methods sometimes practised 
of heating the goods in vessels made of this metal previous 
to canning them. The presence of tin results from the 
action of partially decomposed fruits and vegetables upon 
the can. Preserved fruits and jellies are sometimes put up 
in unsealed tin pails or cans, when they almost invariably 
contain notable amounts of this metal. 

Asparagus seems to be especially liable to contamination 
with metals, doubtless owing to the formation of aspartic 
acid. As much as half a gramme of tin has been found in 



MISCELLANEOUS. 255 

a quart can of this vegetable. The use of zinc chloride as a 
flux in soldering, has, to the writer's knowledge, occasioned 
the presence of an appreciable proportion of the salt in 
canned goods. 

Of 109 samples of canned food lately examined by our 
health officials, 97 contained tin ; 39, copper ; 4, zinc ; and 
2 lead. In the analysis of food of this description, the 
organic matters are first destroyed by heating with oxid- 
ising agents, such as a mixture of potassium chlorate and 
hydrochloric acid. The solution is then evaporated to a 
small volume. It is next diluted with water, and tested 
with sulphuretted hydrogen, ammonium sulphide, and the 
usual reagents. 

Messrs. Waller and Martin have made an investiga- 
tion in regard to the proportion of copper which may be 
present in various natural grains and vegetables. Their 
results show that these plants frequently take up a minute 
quantity of this metal from the soil. The amounts of 
copper found were as follows : — 

Parts of copper 
per million. 

Raw wheat and other grains, from .. .. 4* to io*8 

Green cucumbers 2*5 

» peas .. .. 3-1 

„ pea pods i*o 

The following proportions were detected in canned 
vegetables : — 

Pickles 29 to 91 

Peas 79 „ 190 

Beans .. .. 87 „ 100 

Meat extracts, while not subjected to adulteration, have 
acquired a popular reputation as articles of food which is 
not always deserved. As stimulants and useful adjuncts 
to food proper for invalids, the value of these preparations 
is undoubted. The chemical composition of several of the 
best known brands, as determined by American and 
English health officials, is given below : — 



256 



FOOD ADULTERATION. 









Organic 




Soluble 


Alco- 


Phos- 




Brand. 




Water. 


Sub- 
stance. 


Ash. 


Albu- 
min. 


holic 
Extract. 


phoric 
Acid. 


Potassa. 






per 


per 


per 


per 


per 


per 


per 






cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


Liebig's extract 




l8'27 


58-40 


23*25 


0-05 


44- 1 1 


7-83 


10-18 


Berger's extract of beef 




40-65 


39*85 


I9*50 


I'll 


13-18 






Starr's extract of beef 




37-00 


55-65 


7'35 


I' IO 


10*13 






Johnson's fluid beef . . 




4I-20 


50-40 


8*40 


i -17 


15*93 


I* 9 I 


1-72 


Gaunt's beef peptone 




37*15 


54-92 


7 '43 


o - oo 


20-14 






London Co.'s extract 


of 


81*90 


16-80 


1-30 










beef 


















London Co.'s extract 


of 


78-00 


19-50 


2*50 










mutton 


















London Co.'s extract 


of 


7I-6o 


27*10 


1*30 










chicken 


















Brand's essence of beef 




89-19 


9*50 


i'3i 






0*19 


0'20 


Carnrick's beef peptonoids 


6-75 


87-75 


5-5o 






1*27 


i'33 


Kemmerick's extract 


of 


20-95 


6o*8i 


18*24 






6-56 


8-30 


beef 


















Murdoch's liquid food 




83*61 


I5-83 


0*56 






O'lO 


4*17 


Savory and Moore's fluid 


27-01 


60*89 


I2*IO 






1-49 


4* 20 


meat 


















Valentine's meat juice 


•• 


50-67 


29*41 


11*52 


•• 




3-76 


5*n 



The factitious manufacture of jellies has lately excited 
considerable attention. Many of the more expensive kinds 
of this article are imitated by mixtures consisting largely 
of apple jelly. 

A brand of spurious currant jelly, which is manufactured 
in France, and has recently made its appearance on the 
American market, is prepared from a gelatinous seaweed 
found in Japan {Arachnoidiscus Japonicus), to which 
glucose, tartaric acid, and an artificial essence of currants 
are added, the desired colour being obtained by means of 
cochineal and Althea roseata. The product is offered for 
sale at five cents a pound. 

The flour employed in the manufacture of the maccaroni 
and vermicelli commonly met with in our larger cities, is 
not always of good quality. A more serious form of 
adulteration consists in the artificial colouring of these 
preparations. The substances used for this purpose, which 
have been detected by the public authorities, are turmeric, 



MISCELLANEOUS. 257 

saffron, and chrome yellow. Meat has been found tinted 
with aniline red, and Bologna sausages, coated with iron 
pigments, have occasionally been encountered. 

The flavouring syrups used in connection with the popular 
American beverage, " soda water," frequently consist almost 
wholly of glucose and artificial compound ethers. Dr. Cyrus 
Edson, of the New York City Board of Health, has 
lately directed public notice to the fact that many manu- 
facturers of soda water use water obtained from artesian 
wells, which are driven on their premises, and which, from 
the nature of the geological formation of Manhattan Island, 
are very liable to contain sewage contamination. 



APPENDIX. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

The literature of Food Adulteration has acquired such , 
extensive proportions during the past few years, that a 
complete list of the memoirs which have been contributed 
to scientific journals would alone form a moderately sized 
volume. In the following pages the more important peri- 
odicals, official reports, etc., are mentioned, together with a 
chronological catalogue of the works on Adulteration and 
allied subjects. 

Periodicals. 

Zeitschrift fur Untersuchung von Lebensmittel. Eichstatt. 

Zeitschrift gegen Verfalschung der Lebensmittel. Leipzig. 

The Analyst. London, from 1877 to date. 

The Food Journal. London, 1870 to 1874. 

The Sanitary Engineer. New York, 1877 to date. 

Food, Water, and Air in relation to the Public Health. London, 

1872. 
Jacobson's Chemisch-techniches Repertorium. 1862 to date. 
Repertorium der Analytischen Chemie. 1881. 
Schafer's Wieder die Nahrungsfalscher. Hanover, 1878. 
Biederman's Centralblatt. 1880 to date. 
Zeitschrift fur Analytische Chemie. 1862 to date. 
Wagner's Jahresberichte. 1880 to date. 
American Analyst. New York, 1884 to date. 
Vierteljahresschrift der Chemie der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. 

Berlin, 1887. 

Reports. 

Reports of the Select Committee on Adulteration of Food. London, 

1855, 1856, 1872, 1874. 
Canadian Reports on the Adulteration of Food. Ottawa, 1876 to date. 
First and Second Reports of the Municipal Laboratory of Paris. 






BIBLIOGRAPHY. 259 

Annual Reports of the National Academy of Sciences. Washington, 
1882 to date. 

Annual Reports of the National Board of Health. Washington, 188 1 
to date. 

Annual Reports of the State Boards of Health of New York, New 
Jersey, Massachusetts, and Michigan. 1882 to date. 

Annual Reports of the New York State Dairy Commissioner. 1885- 
1886. 

Annual Reports of the Inspector of Wines and Liquors to the Common- 
wealth of Massachusetts. 1876 to date. 

Annual Reports of the New York City Board of Health. 187 1, 1873. 

Annual Reports of the Brooklyn Board of Health. 

Bulletins of the Chem. Div., U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

Special Technical Journals. 

Milk Journal. London. 

Milch-Zeitung. 

La Sucrerie Indigene. Compiegne. 

Jahresbericht iiber die Untersuchungen und Fortschritte auf dem 

Gesammtgebiete der Zuckerfabrikation. 
Wochenschrift fur die Zuckerfabrikanten. Braunschweig. 
Zeitschrift fur Zuckerindustrie. Prag. 
The Sugar Cane. Manchester. 
Der Bierbrauer. Leipzig. 
Der Amerikanische Bierbrauer. New York. 
Le Brasseur. La Sedan. 
Bayerischer Bierbrauer. Miinchen. 
Norddeutsche Brauer-Zeitung. Berlin. 
The Western Brewer. Chicago and New York. 
The Brewer's Gazette. New York. 
The Brewer's Journal. London. 
Le Moniteur de la Brasserie, Bruxelles. 

Important articles on Food Adulteration and Analysis 
are contained in the following general works of reference :— 

Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry. 

Spons' Encyclopaedia of Arts, Manufactures, etc. 

Muspratt's Encyclopaedia of Chemistry. 

Lippincott's Encyclopaedia of Chemistry. 

Ure's Dictionary of Chemistry. 

Gmelin's Handbook of Chemistry. 

Cooley's Practical Receipts. 

Wurtz's Dictionnaire de Chimie. 

S 2 



260 APPENDIX. 

General Works, chronologically arranged. 

Boyle, Medicina Hydrostatica. London, 1690. 

Sande, Les falsifications des medicaments de'voile'es. La Haye, 1784. 

Fraise, Alimentation publique. Anvers, 1803. 

Favre, De la sophistication des substances medicamenteuses et des 

moyens de la reconnaitre. Paris, 18 12. 
Accum, A Treatise on Adulteration of Foods and Culinary Poisons. 

London, 1820. 
Ebermayer, Manuel des pharmaciens et des droguistes. Paris, 1821. 
Culbrush, Lectures on the Adulteration of Food and Culinary Poisons. 

Newbury, 1823. 
Branchi, Sulla falsificazione delle sostanze specialmente medicinali e 

sui mezzi atti ad scoprirli. Pisa, 1823. 
Desmarest, Traite* des falsifications. Paris, 1827. 
Bussy et Boutron-Charlard, Traite* des moyens de reconnaitre les 

falsifications des drogues. Paris, 1829. 
Walchner, Darstellung der wichtigsten im biirgerlichen Leben 

vorkommenden Verfalschungen der Nahrungsmittel und Getranke. 

Karlsruhe, 1840. 
, Darstellung der wichtigsten, bis jetzt erkannten Verfalschungen 

der Arzneimittel und Droguen. Karlsruhe, 1841. 
Brum, Hilfsbuch bei Untersuchungen der Nahrungsmittel und 

Getranke. Wien, 1842. 
Pereira, A Treatise on Food and Diet. London, 1843. 
Richter, Die Verfalschung der Nahrungsmittel und anderer Lebens- 

bediirfnisse. Gotha, 1843. 
Gamier, Des falsifications des substances alimentaires, et des moyens 

de les reconnaitre. Paris, 1844. 
Trebuschet, Expose* des recherches du Conseil de Salubrite* de Paris. 

Paris, 1845. 
Bertin, Sophistication des substances alimentaires, et moyens de les 

reconnaitre. Nantes, 1846. 
Beck, Adulterations of various substances used in Medicine and in the 

Arts. New York, 1846. 
Friederich, Handbuch der Gesundheitspolizei. Ansbach, 1846. 
Duflos, Die wichtigsten Lebensbediirfnisse, ihre Aechtheit, Giite, und 

Verunreinigungen, etc. Breslau, 1846. 
Acam, Traite* des falsifications des substances medicamenteuses, &c. 

Anvers, 1848. 
Batilliat, Traite" sur les Vins de France. Paris, 1848. 
Mitchell, Treatise on the Adulteration of Food. London, 1848. 
Pedroni, Manuel complet des falsifications des drogues, simples et 

composees. Paris, 1848. 
Normandy, Commercial Handbook of Chemical Analysis. London, 

1850. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 26 1 

Cottereau, Des alterations et des falsifications du vin et des moyens 
physiques et chimiques employe's pour les reconnaitre. Paris, 
1850. 
Dungerville, Traite" des falsifications des substances alimentaires, etc. 

Paris, 1850. 
Marcet, Composition, Adulteration, and Analysis of Foods. London, 

1850. 
Tauber, Verfalschung der Nahrungstoffe und Arzneimittel. Wien, 

1851. 
Chevallier et Baudrimont, Dictionnaire des alterations et falsifications 
des substances alimentaires, etc., avec Vindication des moyens pour 
les reconnaitre. Paris, 185 1. 
Buchner, Die Baierische Bierbrauerei und ihre Geheimnisse. Leipzig, 

1852. 
McMullen, Handbook of Wines. New York, 1852. 
Pierce, Examination of Drugs, Medicines, Chemicals, etc., as to their 

Purity and Adulterations. Cambridge, U.S., 1852. 
Fop, Adulteration of Food. London, 1853. 

Moleschott, Lehre der Nahrungsmittel fur das Volk. Erlangen, 1853. 
Gille, Falsifications des substances alimentaires. Paris, 1853. 
Babo, Von dem Weinbau. 1855. 
Bureaux, Histoire des falsifications des substances alimentaires. Paris, 

1855. 
HassalL Food and its Adulteration. 1855 (there are several later 

editions). 
How, Adulteration of Food and Drink. London, 1855. 
Klencke, Die Nahrungsmittelfrage in Deutschland. Leipzig, 1855. 
Fresenius, Auffindung unorganischer Gifte in Speisen. Braunschweig, 

1856. 
Ganeau, Alterations et falsifications des farines. Lille, 1856. 
Dodd, The Food of London. London, 1856. 
Gall, Praktische Anweisung sehr gute Mittelweine aus unreifen 

Trauben zu erzeugen. Trier, 1856. 
Payen, Des substances alimentaires. Paris, 1856. 
Trommer, Die Kuhmilch in Bezug auf ihre Verdunnung und 

Verfalschungen. Berlin, 1857. 
Dalton, Adulteration of Food. London, 1857. 
Bouchardet et Quevenne, Du Lait. Paris, 1857. 
Miiller, Die Chemie des Bieres. Leipzig, 1858. 

Klencke, Die Verfalschung der Nahrungsmittel und Getranke. Leip- 
zig, 1858. 
Vernois, Du Lait, chez la femme dans l'etat de santd et dans l'elat de 

maladie. Paris, 1858. 
Petit, Instructions simplifies pour la constatation des propridtes des 
principales denrees alimentaires. Bordeaux, 1858. 



262 APPENDIX. 

Miiller, Anleitung zur Priifung der Kuhmilch. Bern, 1858. 
Souillier, Des substances alimentaires, de leur quality de leur falsifica- 
tion, de leur manutention, et de leur conservation. Amiens, 1858. 
Monier, Me'moires sur l'analyse du lait et des fariries. Paris, 1858. 
Nageli, Die Starkemehlkorner. Zurich, 1858. 
Friederich, Die Verfalschung der Speisen und Getranke. Miinster, 

1859. 
Adriene, Recherches sur le lait au point de vue de sa composition, 

de son analyse, etc. Paris, 1859. 
Gellde, Pre'cis d'analyse pour la recherche des alterations et falsifica- 
tions des produits chimiques et pharmaceutiques. Paris, i860. 
Gerhardt, Pre'cis d'analyse pour la recherche des alterations, etc. 

Paris, i860. 
Vogel, Eine neue Milchprobe. Stuttgart, i860. 
Roussen, Falsifications des vins par l'alun. Paris, 1861. 
Brinton, On Food. London, 1861. 
Quarigues, Chemische kiinstliche Bereitung der moussirenden Weine. 

Weimar, 1861. 
Selmi, Chimica applicata all' igiene alia economica domestica. 

Milan, 1861. 
Wenke, Das Bier und seine Verfalschung. Weimar, 1861. 
Henderson, Geschichte des Weines. 1861. 

Hoskins, What we eat, and an account of the most common Adultera- 
tions of Food and Drink, with simple tests by which many of them 
may be detected. Boston, 1861. 
Muller, A., La composition chimique d'aliments, repr^sentd en tableaux 

colories. Brux., 1862. 
Haraszthy, Grape Culture, Wines, and Wine-making. New York, 1862. 
Pohl, Beihilfe zum Gallisiren der Weine. Wien, 1863. 
Moir, Das Bier und dessen Untersuchungen. Miinchen, 1864. 
Balling, Die Bereitung des Weines. Prag, 1865. 
Ladray, L'art de faire le vin. Paris, 1865. 
Pasteur, Pre'cis th^orique et pratique des substances alimentaires. 

Paris, 1865. 
Druitt, On Wines. London, 1866. 

Huber und Becker, Die pathologisch-histiologischen und bacterio- 
logischen Untersuchungsmethoden, mit einer Darstellung der 
wichtigsten Bacterien. Leipzig, 1866. 
Robinet, Manuel pratique et eldmentaire d'analyse chimique des 

vins. Paris, 1866. 
Gerstenbergk, Geheimnisse und Winke fur Braumeister. Weimar, 

1866. 
Vogel, Die Bieruntersuchung. Berlin, 1866. 

Feser, Der Werth der bestehenden Milchproben fiir die Milchpolizei. 
Miinchen, 1866. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 263 

Brun, Guide pratique pour reconnaitre et corriger les fraudes et 

maladies du vin. Paris, 1866. 
Lancaster, Good Food, what it is and how to get it. London, 1867. 
Feuchtwanger, Fermented Liquors, etc. New York, 1867. 
Wiesner, Einleitung in die technisch Mikroscopie. Wien, 1867. 
Gall, Das Gallisiren. Trier, 1867. 

Monier, Guide pratique d'essai et l'analyse des sucres. Paris, 1867. 
Cameron, Chemistry of Food. London, 1868. 
Cammerson, Guide pour l'analyse des matieres sucre'es. Paris, 

1868. m 
Pasteur, Etude sur le Vinaigre. Paris, 1868. 

Dubusque, Pratique du Saccharimetre Soleil modiriee. Paris, 1868. 
Wanklyn, Water Analysis. London, 1868. 

Sonnenschein, Handbuch der gerichtlichen Chemie. Berlin, 1869. 
Letheby, On Food, its varieties, chemical composition, etc. London, 

1870. 
Rion, Sammtliche Geheimnisse der Bierbrauerei. New York, 1870. 
Neubauer, Chemie des Weines. Wiesbaden, 1870. 
Foellix, Griindliche Belehrung liber richtiges Gallisiren oder Veredeln 

der Trauben-most in nicht guten Weinjahren durch Zucker- und 

Wasserzusatz. Mainz, 1870. 
Martigny, Die Milch, ihre Wesen und ihre Verwerthung. 1871. 
Huseman, Die Pflanzenstoffen. Berlin, 1871. 
Hager, Untersuchungen. Leipzig, 1871. 
Facen, Chimica bromatologica ossia guida per riconoscere la bonta, 

le alterazioni e la falsificazione delle sostanze alimentari. Compi- 
lation. Firenze, 1872. 
Griffin, The Chemical Testing of Wines and Spirits. London, 1872. 
Wiesner, Mikroskopische Untersuchungen. Stuttgardt, 1872. 
Thudichum and Dupre, A Treatise on the Origin, Nature, and Varieties 

of Wine. London, 1872. 
Dobell, On Diet. London, 1872. 
Vogel, Nahrungs- und Genussmittel aus dem Pflanzenreiche. Wien, 

1872. 
Dragendorff, Untersuchungen aus dem pharmaceutischen Institut in 

Dorpat. St. Petersburg, 1872. 
Thein, Die Weinveredelung und Kiinstfabrication. Prag, 1873. 
Dochnahl, Die kunstliche Weinbereitung. Frankfurt, 1873. 
Bersch, Die Vermehrung und Verbesserung des Weines. Wien, 1873. 
Smith, Ed., Handbook for Inspectors of Nuisances. London, 1873. 

. ■, Foods. London, 1873. 

Hager, Untersuchungen. Leipzig, 1873. 

Atcherly, Adulterations of Food. London, 1874. 

Baltzer, Die Nahrungs- und Genussmittel der Menschen. Nord- 

hausen, 1874. 



264 APPENDIX. 

Lunel, Guide pratique pour reconnaitre les falsifications des sub- 
stances alimentaires. Paris, 1874. 
Walchner, Die Nahrungsmittel des Menschen, ihre Verfalschungen 

und Verunreinigung. Berlin, 1874. 
Marvaud, Les aliments d'e'pargne. Paris, 1874. 
Smith, Ed., Manual for Medical Officers of Health. London, 1874. 
Hamm, Das Weinbuch. Leipzig, 1874. 
Nageli, Starkegruppe. Leipzig, 1874. 

Schmidt, Ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Milch. Dorpat, 1874. 
Squibb, Proper Legislation on Adulteration of Food. New York, 1874. 
Wanklyn, Milk Analysis. London, 1874. 

Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa. London, 1874. 

Sharpies, Food, and its Adulteration. Preston, 1874. 

Passoz, Notice sur la saccharom&rie chimique. Paris, 1874. 

Angell and Hehner, Butter, its Analysis and Adulteration. London, 

1874. 
Cotter, Adulterations of Liquors. New York, 1874. 
Jones, Chemistry of Wines. London, 1874. 
Bowman and Bloxam, Medical Chemistry. London, 1874. 
Springer, Ein Handbuch der Untersuchung, Pruning und Werth- 

bestimmung aller Handswaaren, Natur- und Kunsterzeugnisse, 

Gifte, Lebensmittel, Geheimmittel, etc. Berlin, 1874. 
Attfield, General, Medicinal, and Pharmaceutical Chemistry. London, 

1874. 
Thiel, Nahrungs- und Genussmittel als Erzeugnisse der Industrie. 

Braunschweig, 1874. 
Black, A Practical Treatise on Brewing. London, 1875. 
Dammer, Kurzes chemische Handworterbuch. 1875. 
Blankenhorn, Bibliotheca cenologica, etc. Heidelberg, 1875. 
Miiller, Chemische Zusammensetzung der wichtigsten Nahrungsmittel. 

1875. 
Terrell, Notions pratiques sur l'analyse chimique des substances 

sacchariferes. Paris, 1878. 
Prescott, Chemical Examination of Alcoholic Liquors. New York, 

1875. 
Pavy, A Treatise on Food and Dietetics. London, 1875. 
Hoppe - Seyler, Handbuch der physiologisch- und pathologisch- 

chemische Analyse. Berlin, 1875. 
Bartling, Die Englische Spiritus- fabrication und der Spiritus auf dem 

Englischen Markte. London, 1876. 
Bastide, Vins sophistique's. Bends, 1876. 

Blyth, Dictionary of Hygiene and Public Health. London, 1876. 
Bresgen, Der Handel mit verdorbenen Getranke. Ahrenweiler, 1876. 
Bolley, Handbuch der technisch-chemischen Untersuchungen. Leipzig, 

1876. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 265 

Pasteur, Etude sur la biere. Paris, 1876. 

Recherches des substances ameres dans la biere. Paris, 1876. 

Ritter, Des vins colorids par la fuchsine. Paris, 1876. 

Schutzenberger, On Fermentation. New York, 1876. 

Bauer, Die Verfalschung der Nahrungsmittel in grossen Stadten, 
speciell Berlin, etc. Berlin, 1877. 

Grandeau, Traitd d'analyse des matieres agricoles. Paris, 1877. 

Church, Food. New York, 1877. 

Dennehl, Die Verfalschung des Bieres. Berlin, 1877. 

Feltz, Etude expe'rimentale de Paction de la fuchsine sur l'organisme. 
Nancy, 1877. 

Gaultier, La sophistication des vins. Paris, 1877. 

Duplais, Traite de la fabrication des liqueurs et de la distillation des 
alcools. Paris, 1877. 

Goppelsroeder, Sur l'analyse des vins. Mulhouse, 1877. 

Hilger, Die wichtigen Nahrungsmittel. Erlangen, 1877. 

Lieberman, Anleitung zur chemischen Untersuchung auf der Gebiete 
der Medicinal-polizei. Stuttgardt, 1877. 

Birnbaum, Einfache Methoden zur Pruning wichtiger Lebensmittel 
auf Verfalschungen. Karlsruhe, 1877. 

Focke, Massregeln gegen Verfalschung der Nahrungsmittel. Chem- 
nitz, 1877. 

Hausner, Die Fabrikation der Conserven und Conditen. Leipzig, 1877. 

Lobner, Massregeln gegen Verfalschung der Nahrungsmittel. Chem- 
nitz, 1877. 

Mierzinski, Die Conservirung der Thier- und Pflanzenstoffe. Berlin, 

1877. 

Wittstein, Taschenbuch des Nahrungs- und Genussmittel-Lehre. 
Nordlingen, 1877. 

Lintner, Lehrbuch der Bierbraurei. 1877. 

Loebner, Massregeln gegen Verfalschung der Nahrungsmittel. Chem- 
nitz, 1877. 

Reitleitner, Die Analyse des Weines. Wien, 1877. 

Schnarke, Worterbuch der Verfalschung. Jena, 1877. 

Husson, Du Vin. Paris, 1877. 

Bauer, Die Verfalschung des Nahrungsmittel. Berlin, 1877. 

Stierlin, Ueber Weinverfalschung und Weinfarbung. Bern, 1877. 

Das Bier und seine Verfalschung. Bern, 1877. 

Pfeiffer, Analyse der Milch. Wiesbaden, 1877. 

Koenig, Chemische Zusammensetzung der menschlichen Nahrungs- 
mittel. Leipzig, 1878. 

Lang, Die Fabrikation der Kiinstbutter, Sparbutter, und Butterin. 
Leipzig, 1878. 

Auerbeck, Die Verfalschung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. Bremen, 
1878. 



266 APPENDIX. 

Fox, Sanitary Examination of Water, Air, and Food. 1878. 
Klencke, Illustrirtes Lexicon der Verfalschungen der Nahrungsmittel 

und Getranke. Leipzig, 1878. 
Schmidt, Anleitung zu sanitarisch- und polizeilich-chemischen Unter- 

suchungen. Zurich, 1878. 
Birnbaum, Das Brodtbacken. Braunschweig, 1878. 
Bronner and Scoffern, The Chemistry of Food and Diet. London, 

1878. 
Kollmann, Anhaltspunkte zur Benutzung bei Bieruntersuchung. 

Leipzig, 1878. 
Nessler, Die Behandlung des Weines. Stuttgart, 1878. 
Parkes, A Manual of Practical Hygiene. London, 1878. 
Roth, Die Chemie des Rothweines. Heidelberg, 1878. 
Reischauer, Die Chemie des Bieres. Miinchen, 1879. 
Caldwell, Agricultural Qualitative and Quantitative Chemical Analysis. 

New York, 1879. 
Adams, Etude sur les principales methodes d'essai et d'analyse du 

lait. Paris, 1879. 
Bias, De la presence de l'acide salicylique dans les bieres. Paris, 

1879. 
Dietzsch, Die wichtigsten Nahrungs-und Genussmittel. Zurich, 1879. 
Kensington, Analysis of Foods. London, 1879. 
Fleischman, Das Molkenvesen. 1879. 
Bourchadat et Quervenne, Instruction sur l'essai et l'analyse du lait. 

Paris, 1879. 
Robinet, Manuel pratique d'analyse des vins, etc. Paris, 1879. 
Stahlschmidt, Bolley's Handbuch der technisch-chemischen Unter- 

suchungen. Leipzig, 1879. 
Mott, Brief History of the Mege Discovery. New York, 1880. 
Eisner, Die Praxis des Nahrungs-mittel Chemikers, etc. Leipzig, 1880. 
Hoppe-Seyler, Physiologische Chemie. Berlin. 1880. 
Guckeisen, Die modernen Principien der Ernahrung. Koln, 1880. 
Griessmayer, Die Verfalschung der wichtigsten Nahrungs- und 

Genussmittel. 1880. 
Meyer und Finkelnburg, Gesetze der Verkehr mit Nahrungsmittel, 

Genussmittel, etc. Berlin, 1880. 
Pick, Die Untersuchung der im Handel und Gewerbe gebrauchlichsten 

Stoffe. Wien, 1880. 
Marcker, Handbuch der Spiritusfabrikation. 1880. 
Johnson, Chemistry of Common Life. New York, 1880. 
Pratt, Food Adulteration. Chicago, 1880. 
Muter, An Introduction to Pharmaceutical and Medical Chemistry. 

Philadelphia, 1880. 
Fliigge, Lehrbuch der hygienischen Untersuchungsmethoden. Leip- 
zig, 1 88 1. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 267 

Hehner, Alkoholtafeln. Wiesbaden, 1881. 

Medicus, Gerichtlich-chemische Priifung von Nahrungs- und Genuss- 

mittel. Wiirzburg, 1881. 
Nowak, Lehrbuch der Hygiene. Wien, 1881. 
Post, Handbuch der analytischen Untersuchungen zur Beaufsichti- 

gung der chemische Grossbetriber. Braunschweig, 188 1. 
Tucker, Manual of Sugar Analysis. New York, 1881. 
Blyth, Foods, Composition and Analysis. London, 1882. 
Blochman, Ueber Verfalschung der Nahrungsmittel. Koln, 1882. 
Flick, Die Chemie im Dienst der offentlichen Gesundheitspflege. 

Dresden, 1882. 
Landolt, Handbook of the Polariscope (trans.). London, 1882. 
Palm, Die wichtigsten und gebrauchlichsten Nahrungsmittel. St. 

Petersburg, 1882. 
Prescott, Proximate Organic Analysis. New York, 1882. 
Bell, James, Chemistry of Food. London, 1883. 
Frankland, Agricultural Chemical Analysis. London, 1883. 
Tracy, Handbook of Sanitary Information. New York, 1884. 
Naquet, Legal Chemistry (trans., 2nd edition). New York, 1884. 
Cornwall, Adulteration of Beer. 1885. 

Husband- Audry, Aids to the Analysis of Food and Drugs. 1884. 
Smee, Milk in Health and Disease. London, 1885. 
Wauters, Prospect d'organisation d'un service de surveillance des 

Denrees alimentaires et Boissons. Paris, 1885. 
Brieger, Untersuchung liber Ptomaine. Berlin, 1886. 
Cazeneuve, La coloration des vins par les couleurs de houille. 

Paris, 1886. 
Jago, The Chemistry of Wheat, Flour, and Bread. London, 1886. 
Merat et Delens, Dictionnaire Universelle. Paris, 1886. 
Schimper, Anleitung zur mikroskopisch-chemischen Untersuchung 

der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. Jena, 1886. 
Thomann, Alleged Adulteration of Malt Liquors. New York, 1886. 
Wanklyn, Bread Analysis. London, 1886. 
Benedikt, Analyse der Fette, etc. Berlin, 1886. 
Allen, Commercial Organic Analysis. Philadelphia, 1887. 
Damner, Ulustrirtes Lexikon der Verfalschungen und Verunreini- 

gungen der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. Leipzig, 1887. 
Bickerdyke, The Curiosities of Ale and Beer. New York, 1887. 
Moeller, Mikroskopie der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. Berlin, 1887. 
Omnger, Die Ptomaine oder Cad aver- Alkalo'ide. Wiesbaden, 1887. 



( 268 ) 



LEGISLATION. 

The following are the more important and recent laws re- 
lating to Food Adulteration, which have been enacted by, 
American State Legislatures, and by the United States 
Government. 

The New York State General Law, of 1881, for the 
prevention of the adulteration of food and drugs, is as 
follows : — 

Section i. No person shall, within this State, manufacture, have, 
offer for sale, or sell any article of food or drugs which is adulterated 
within the meaning of this Act, and any person violating this pro- 
vision shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanour, and upon conviction 
thereof, shall be punished by fine not exceeding fifty dollars for the 
first offence, and not exceeding one hundred dollars for each subse- 
quent offence. 

2. The term " food," as used in this Act, shall include every article 
used for food or drink by man. The term " drug," as used in this 
Act, shall include all medicines for internal and external use. 

3. An article shall be deemed to be adulterated within the meaning 
of this Act :— 

a. — In the case of drugs. 

1. If, when sold under or by a name recognised in the United 

States Pharmacopoeia, it differs from the standard of 
strength, quality, or purity laid down therein. 

2. If, when sold under or by a name not recognised in the 

United States Pharmacopoeia, but which is found in some 
other pharmacopoeia or other standard work on Materia 
Medica, it differs materially from the standard of strength, 
quality, or purity laid down in such work. 

3. If its strength or purity fall below the professed standard 

under which it is sold. 
b. — In the case of food or drink. 

1. If any substance or substances has or have been mixed with 
it so as to reduce or lower or injuriously affect its quality 
or strength. 



LEGISLATION. 269 

2. If any inferior or cheaper substance or substances have been 

substituted wholly or in part for the article. 

3. If any valuable constituent of the article has been wholly or 

in part abstracted. 

4. If it be an imitation of, or be sold under the name of, 

another article. 

5. If it consists wholly or in part of a diseased or decomposed, 

or putrid or rotten, animal or vegetable substance, whether 
manufactured or not, or, in the case of milk, if it is the 
produce of a diseased animal. 

6. If it be coloured, or coated, or polished, or powdered, 

whereby damage is concealed, or it is made to appear 
better than it really is, or of greater value. 

7. If it contain any added poisonous ingredient, or any ingre- 

dient which may render such article injurious to the health 
of the person consuming it : Provided, that the State Board 
of Health may, with the approval of the Governor, from 
time to time declare certain articles or preparations to be 
exempt from the provisions of this Act : And provided 
further, that the provisions of this Act shall not apply to 
mixtures or compounds recognised as ordinary articles of 
food, provided that the same are not injurious to health 
and that the articles are distinctly labelled as a mixture, 
stating the components of the mixture. 

4. It shall be the duty of the State Board of Health to prepare and 
publish from time to time lists of the articles, mixtures, or compounds 
declared to be exempt from the provisions of this Act in accordance 
with the preceding section. The State Board of Health shall also 
from time to time fix the limits of variability permissible in any article 
of food or drug, or compound, the standard of which is not established 
by any national pharmacopoeia. 

5. The State Board of Health shall take cognisance of the interests 
of the public health as it relates to the sale of food and drugs and the 
adulteration of the same, and make all necessary investigations and 
inquiries relating thereto. It shall also have the supervision of the 
appointment of public analysts and chemists, and upon its recom- 
mendation whenever it shall deem any such officers incompetent, the 
appointment of any and every such officer shall be revoked and be 
held to be void and of no effect. Within thirty days after the passage 
of this Act, the State Board of Health shall meet and adopt such 
measures as may seem necessary to facilitate the enforcement of this 
Act, and prepare rules and regulations with regard to the proper 
methods of collecting and examining articles of food or drugs, and 
for the appointment of the necessary inspectors and analysts ; and the 
State Board of Health shall be authorised to expend, in addition to all 



2 JO APPENDIX. 

sums already appropriated for said Board, an amount not exceeding 
ten thousand dollars for the purpose of carrying out the provisions of 
this Act. And the sum of ten thousand dollars is hereby appropriated 
out of any moneys in the treasury, not otherwise appropriated, for the 
purposes in this section provided. 

6. Every person selling or offering or exposing any article of food or 
drugs for sale, or delivering any article to purchasers, shall be bound 
to serve or supply any public analyst or other agent of the State or 
Local Board of Health appointed under this Act, who shall apply to 
him for that purpose, and on his tendering the value of the same, with 
a sample sufficient for the purpose of analysis of any article which is 
included in this Act, and which is in the possession of the person 
selling, under a penalty not exceeding fifty dollars for a first offence, 
and one hundred dollars for a second and subsequent offences. 

7. Any violation of the provisions of this Act shall be treated and 
punished as a misdemeanour ; and whoever shall impede, obstruct, 
hinder, or otherwise prevent any analyst, inspector, or prosecuting 
officer in the performance of his duty shall be guilty of a misde- 
meanour, and shall be liable to indictment and punishment therefor. 

8. Any Acts or parts of Acts inconsistent with the provisions of 
this Act are hereby repealed. 

9. All the regulations and declarations of the State Board of Health 
made under this Act from time to time, and promulgated, shall be 
printed in the statutes at large. 

10. This Act shall take effect at the expiration of ninety days after 
it shall become a law. 



Amendment of April 29th, 1885. 

Section i. The title of chapter four hundred and seven of the laws 
of eighteen hundred and eighty-one, entitled " An Act to prevent the 
adulteration of food and drugs," is hereby amended to read as follows : 
"An Act to prevent the adulteration of food, drugs and spirituous, 
fermented or malt liquors in the State of- New York." 

2. Section one of chapter four hundred and seven of the laws of 
eighteen hundred and eighty-one is amended to read as follows : — 

1. No person shall within this State manufacture, brew, distil, have, 
offer for sale or sell any articles of food, drugs, spirituous, fermented 
or malt liquors which are adulterated within the meaning of this Act, 
and any person violating this provision shall be deemed guilty of a 
misdemeanour, and upon conviction thereof, shall be punished by fine 
not exceeding fifty dollars for the first offence, and not exceeding one 
hundred dollars or imprisonment for one year, or both, for each sub- 
sequent offence, and shall in addition thereto be liable to a penalty of 



LEGISLATION. 27 1 

one hundred dollars for each and every offence, to be sued for and 
recovered in the name of the people of the State of New York on com- 
plaint of any citizen, one-half of such recovery to be paid to the 
prosecutor of the action and the balance shall be paid to the county 
where such recovery shall be obtained for the support of the poor. 

3. Section two is hereby amended to read as follows: — 

2. The term food as used in this Act shall include every article of 
food or drink by man, including teas, coffees, and spirituous, fermented 
and malt liquors. The term drug as used in this Act shall include all 
medicines for internal or external use. 

4. Section three is hereby amended by adding after subdivision 
seven the following : C. In the case of spirituous, fermented and malt 
liquors, if it contain any substance or ingredient not normal or health- 
ful to exist in spirituous, fermented or malt liquors, or which may be 
deleterious or detrimental to health when such liquors are used as a 
beverage. 

5. Section five is hereby amended to read as follows : — 

5. The State Board of Health shall take cognisance of the interests 
of the public health as it relates to the sale of food, drugs, spirituous, 
fermented and malt liquors, and the adulteration thereof, and make 
all necessary inquiries relating thereto. It shall have the supervision 
of the appointment of public analysts and chemists, and upon its 
recommendation, whenever it shall deem any such officers incompetent, 
the appointment of any and every such officer shall be revoked and be 
held to be void and of no effect. Within thirty days after the passage 
of this Act, and from time to time thereafter as it may deem expedient, 
the said Board of Health shall meet and adopt such measures, not 
provided for by this Act, as may seem necessary to facilitate the en- 
forcement of this Act, and for the purpose of making an examination 
or analysis of spirituous, fermented or malt liquors sold or exposed for 
sale in any store or place of business not herein otherwise provided for, 
and prepare rules and regulations with regard to the proper methods 
of collecting and examining articles of food, drugs, spirituous, fermented 
or malt liquors, and for the appointment of the necessary inspectors 
and analysts. The said Board shall at least once in the calendar year 
cause samples to be procured in public market or otherwise, of the 
spirituous, fermented or malt liquors distilled, brewed, manufactured 
or offered for sale in each and every brewery or distillery located in 
this State, and a test, sample or analysis thereof to be made by a 
chemist or analyst duly appointed by said Board of Health. The 
samples shall be kept in vessels and in a condition necessary and 
adequate to obtain a proper test and analysis of the liquors contained 
therein. The vessels containing such samples shall be properly labelled 
and numbered by the secretary of said Board of Health, who shall also 
prepare and keep an accurate and proper list of the names of the dis- 



272 APPENDIX. 

tillers, brewers or vendors, and opposite each name shall appear the 
number which is written or printed upon the label attached to the 
vessel containing the sample of the liquor manufactured, brewed, dis- 
tilled or sold. Such lists, numbers and labels shall be exclusively for 
the information of the said Board of Health, and shall not be disclosed 
or published unless upon discovery of some deleterious substance prior 
to the completion of the analysis, except when required in evidence in 
a court of justice. The samples when listed and numbered shall be 
delivered to the chemist, analyst or other officer of said Board of Health, 
and shall be designated and known to such chemist, analyst or officer 
only by its number, and by no other mark or designation. The result 
of the analysis or investigation shall thereupon, and within a convenient - 
time, be reported by the officer conducting the same to the secretary 
of said State Board of Health, setting forth explicitly the nature of any 
deleterious substance, compound or adulteration which may be detri- 
mental to public health and which has been found upon analysis in 
such samples, and stating the number of the samples in which said 
substance was found. Upon such examination or analysis the brewer, 
distiller or vendor in whose sample of spirituous, fermented or malt 
liquor such deleterious substances, compounds or adulterations shall 
be found, shall be deemed to have violated the provisions of this Act, 
and shall be punishable as prescribed in section seven of this Act. 

6. Section six of said chapter four hundred and seven of the laws 
of eighteen hundred and eighty-one is hereby amended to read as 
follows: — 

6. Every person selling, offering, exposing for sale or manufacturing, 
brewing or distilling any article of food, spirituous, malt or fermented 
liquors, or delivering any such articles to purchasers, shall be bound 
to serve or supply any public analyst or other agent of the State or 
local Board of Health appointed under this Act, who shall apply to 
him for that purpose, and upon his tendering the value of the same, 
with a sample sufficient for the purpose of analysis of any article which 
is included in this Act, and which is in possession of the person selling ? 
manufacturing, brewing or distilling the same, and any person who 
shall refuse to serve or supply such sample of any article as prescribed 
herein, or any person who shall impede, obstruct, hinder or otherwise 
prevent any analyst, inspector or prosecuting officer in the performance 
of his duty shall be deemed to have violated the provisions of this Act, 
and shall be punishable as prescribed by section seven of this Act. 

7. Section seven of said chapter four hundred and seven of the 
laws of eighteen hundred and eighty-one is hereby amended to read 
as follows : — 

7. Upon discovering that any person has violated any of the pro- 
visions of this Act, the State Board of Health shall immediately com- 
municate the facts to the district attorney of the county in which the 



LEGISLATION. 2j$ 

person accused of such violation resides or carries on business, and 
the said district attorney, upon receiving such communication or 
notification, shall forthwith commence proceeding for indictment and 
trial of the accused as prescribed by law in cases of misdemeanour. 

8. The State Board of Health shall be authorised to expend, in 
addition to the sums already appropriated for said board, an amount 
not exceeding three thousand dollars, for the purpose of carrying out 
the provisions of this Act, in relation to spirituous, fermented or malt 
liquors. And the sum of three thousand dollars is hereby appropriated 
out of any moneys in the treasury not otherwise appropriated and 
expended for the purposes of this Act. 

9. This Act shall take effect immediately. 



Special Act to prevent deception in the sale of dairy products, 
and to preserve the public health, being supplementary to and in 
aid of chapter two hundred and two of the laws of eighteen hundred 
and eighty-four, entitled " An act to prevent deception in sales of 
dairy products." 

(Passed April 30, 1885). 

The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate and 
Assembly, do enact as follows : — 

Section i. No person or persons shall sell or exchange, or expose 
for sale or exchange, any unclean, impure, unhealthy, adulterated or 
unwholesome milk, or shall offer for sale any article of food made from 
the same, or of cream from the same. The provisions of this section 
shall not apply to skim milk sold to bakers or housewives for their own 
use or manufacture, upon written orders for the same, nor to skim milk 
sold for use in the county in which it is produced. This provision 
shall not apply to pure skim cheese made from milk which is clean, 
pure, healthy, wholesome and unadulterated, except by skimming. 
Whoever violates the provisions of this section is guilty of a mis- 
demeanour, and shall be punished by a fine of not less than twenty- 
five dollars, nor more than two hundred dollars, or by imprisonment 
of not less than one month or more than six months, or both such 
fine and imprisonment for the first offence, and by six months' im- 
prisonment for each subsequent offence. 

2. No person shall keep cows for the production of milk for market, 
or for sale or exchange, or for manufacturing the same, or cream from 
the same, into articles of food, in a crowded or unhealthy, condition, 
or feed the cows on food that is unhealthy, or that produces impure, 
unhealthy, diseased or unwholesome milk, No person shall manu- 
facture from impure, unhealthy, diseased or unwholesome milk, or of 
cream from the same, any article of food. Whoever violates the pro- 

T 



2 74 APPENDIX. 

visions of this section is guilty of a misdemeanour and shall be punished 
by a fine of not less than twenty-five dollars, nor more than two 
hundred dollars, or by imprisonment of not less than one month or 
more than four months, or by both such fine and imprisonment for the 
first offence, and by four months' imprisonment for each subsequent 
offence. 

3. No person or persons shall sell, supply or bring to be manu- 
factured to any butter or cheese manufactory, any milk diluted with 
water or any unclean, impure, unhealthy, adulterated or unwholesome 
milk, or milk from which any cream has been taken (except pure skim 
milk to skim cheese factories), or shall keep back any part of the milk 
commonly known as " stoppings," or shall bring or supply milk to any * 
butter or cheese manufactory that is sour (except pure skim milk to 
skim cheese factories). No butter or cheese manufactories, except 
those who buy all the milk they use, shall use for their own benefit, or 
allow any of their employes or any other person to use for their own 
benefit, any milk, or cream from the milk, or the product thereof, 
brought to said manufactories without the consent of the owners 
thereof. Every butter or cheese manufacturer, except those who buy 
all the milk they use, shall keep a correct account of all the milk 
daily received, and of the number of packages of butter and cheese 
made each day, and the number of packages and aggregate weight 
of cheese and butter disposed of each day, which account shall be 
open to inspection to any person who delivers milk to such manu- 
facturer. Whoever violates the provisions of this section shall be 
guilty of a misdemeanour, and shall be punished for each offence by 
a fine of not less than twenty-five dollars, or more than two hundred 
dollars, or not less than one month or more than six months' im- 
prisonment, or both such fine and imprisonment. 

4. No manufacturer of vessels for the package of butter shall sell or 
dispose of any such vessels without branding his name and the true 
weight of the vessel or vessels on the same, with legible letters or 
figures not less than one-fourth of an inch in length. Whoever 
violates the provisions of this section is guilty of a misdemeanour, 
and shall be punished for each offence by a fine of not less than fifty 
dollars, nor more than one hundred dollars, or by imprisonment of 
not less than thirty days or more than sixty days, or by both such 
fine and imprisonment. 

5. No person shall sell, or offer or expose for sale, any milk except 
in the county from which the same is produced, unless each can, 
vessel or package containing such milk shall be distinctly and durably 
branded with letters not less than one inch in length, on the outside, 
above the center, on every can, vessel or package containing such 
milk, the name of the county from which the same is produced ; and 
the same marks shall be branded or painted in a conspicuous place on 



LEGISLATION. 275 

the carriage or vehicle in which the milk is drawn to be sold ; and 
such milk can only be sold in, or retailed out of a can, vessel, package 
or carriage so marked. Whoever violates the provisions of this section 
shall be guilty of a misdemeanour, and shall be punished by a fine of 
not less than twenty-five dollars nor more than two hundred dollars, 
or not less than two months' or more than four months' imprisonment, 
or both such fine and imprisonment, for the first offence, and by four 
months' imprisonment for each subsequent offence. 

6. No person shall manufacture out of any oleaginous substance or 
substances, or any compound of the same, other than that produced 
from unadulterated milk, or of cream from the same, any article 
designed to take the place of butter or cheese produced from pure un- 
adulterated milk or cream of the same, or shall sell, or offer for sale, 
the same as an article of food. This provision shall not apply to pure 
skim-milk cheese made from pure skim milk. Whoever violates the 
provisions of this section shall be guilty of a misdemeanour, and be 
punished by a fine of not less than two hundred dollars nor more than 
five hundred dollars, or not less than six months or more than one 
year's imprisonment, or both such fine and imprisonment for the first 
offence, and by imprisonment for one year for each subsequent offence. 

7. No person by himself or his agents or servants shall render or 
manufacture out of any animal fat or animal or vegetable oils not pro- 
duced from unadulterated milk or cream from the same, any article or 
product in imitation or semblance of or designed to take the place of 
natural butter or cheese produced from pure unadulterated milk or 
cream of the same, nor shall he or they mix, compound with, or add 
to milk, cream or butter any acids or other deleterious substance or 
any animal fats or animal or vegetable oils not produced from milk or 
cream, with design or intent to render, make or produce any article or 
substance or any human food in imitation or semblance of natural 
butter or cheese, nor shall he sell, keep for sale, or offer for sale any 
article, substance or compound made, manufactured or produced in 
violation of the provisions of this section, whether such article, sub- 
stance or compound shall be made or produced in this State or in any 
other State or country. Whoever violates the provisions of this section 
shall be guilty of a misdemeanour and be punished by a fine of not less 
than two hundred dollars nor more than five hundred dollars or not less 
than six months' or more than one years' imprisonment for the first 
offence, and by imprisonment for one year for each subsequent offence. 
Nothing in this section shall impair the provisions of section six of 
this Act. 

8. No person shall manufacture, mix or compound with or add to 
natural milk, cream or butter any animal fats or animal or vegetable 
oils, nor shall he make or manufacture any oleaginous substance not 
produced from milk or cream, with intent to sell the same for butter or 

T 2 



276 APPENDIX. 

cheese made from unadulterated milk or cream, or have the same 
in his possession, or offer the same for sale with such intent, nor shall 
any article or substance or compound so made or produced, be sold 
for butter or cheese, the product of the dairy. If any person shall 
coat, powder or colour with annatto or any colouring matter whatever, 
butterine or oleomargarine, or any compounds of the same, or any 
product or manufacture made in whole or in part from animal fats or 
animal or vegetable oils not produced from unadulterated milk or 
cream, whereby the said product, manufacture or compound shall be 
made to resemble butter or cheese, the product of the dairy, or shall have 
the same in his possession, or shall sell or offer for sale or have in his 
possession any of the said products which shall be coloured or coated 
in semblance of or to resemble butter or cheese, it shall be conclusive 
evidence of an intent to sell the same for butter or cheese, the product 
of the dairy. Whoever violates any of the provisions of this section 
shall be guilty of a misdemeanour, and be punished by a fine of not less 
than two hundred dollars nor more than one thousand dollars. This 
section shall not be construed to impair or affect the prohibitions of 
sections six and seven of this Act. 

9. Every manufacturer of full-milk cheese may put a brand upon 
each cheese indicating " full-milk cheese," and the date of the month 
and year when made ; and any person using this brand upon any cheese 
made from which any cream whatever has been taken shall be guilty 
of a misdemeanour, and shall be punished for each offence by a fine of 
not less than one hundred dollars nor more than five hundred dollars. 

10. No person shall offer, sell or expose for sale in full packages, 
butter or cheese branded or labelled with a false brand or label as to 
county or state in which the article is made. Whoever violates the 
provisions of this section is guilty of a misdemeanour, and shall be 
punished by a fine of not less than twenty-five dollars or more than 
fifty dollars, or imprisonment of not less than fifteen days or more 
than thirty days for the first offence, and fifty dollars or thirty days' 
imprisonment for each subsequent offence. 

11. No person shall manufacture, sell or offer for sale any condensed 
milk, unless the same shall be put up in packages upon which shall be 
distinctly labelled or stamped the name, or brand, by whom or under 
which the same is made. No condensed milk shall be made or 
offered for sale unless the same is manufactured from pure, clean, 
healthy, fresh, unadulterated and wholesome milk, from which the 
cream has not been removed, or unless the proportion of milk solids 
contained in the condensed milk shall be in amount the equivalent of 
twelve per centum of milk solids in crude milk, and of such solids 
twenty-five per centum shall be fat. When condensed milk shall be 
sold from cans, or packages not hermetically sealed, the vendor shall 
brand or label such cans or packages with the name of the county or 



LEGISLATION. 277 

counties from which the same was produced, and the name of the vendor. 
Whoever violates the provisions of this section shall be guilty of a 
misdemeanour, and be punished by a fine of not less than fifty dollars 
or more than five hundred dollars, or by imprisonment of not more 
than six months, or by both such fine and imprisonment for the first 
offence, and by six months' imprisonment for each subsequent offence. 
12. Upon the expiration of the term of office of the present com- 
missioner, the Governor, by and with the advice and consent of the 
Senate, shall appoint a commissioner, who shall be known as the New 
York State Dairy Commissioner, who shall be a citizen of this State, 
and who shall hold his office for the term of two years, or until his 
successor is appointed, and shall receive a salary of three thousand 
dollars per annum, and his necessary expenses incurred in the dis- 
charge of his official duties under this Act. Said commissioner shall 
be charged, under the direction of the Governor, with the enforcement 
of the various provisions thereof, and with all laws prohibiting or 
regulating the adulteration of butter, cheese, or milk. The said com- 
missioner is hereby authorised and empowered to appoint such 
assistant commissioners and to employ such experts, chemists, agents, 
and such counsel as may be deemed by him necessary for the proper 
enforcement of this law, their compensation to be fixed by the com- 
missioner. The said commissioner is also authorised to employ a 
clerk at an annual salary not to exceed twelve hundred dollars. The 
sum of fifty thousand dollars is hereby appropriated, to be paid for 
such purpose out of any moneys in the Treasury not otherwise appro- 
priated. All charges, accounts and expenses authorised by this Act 
shall be paid by the Treasurer of the State upon the warrant of the 
comptroller, after such expenses have been audited and allowed by 
the comptroller. The entire expenses of said commissioner shall not 
exceed the sum appropriated for the purposes of this Act. The said 
commissioner shall make annual reports to the legislature, on or 
before the fifteenth day of January of each year, of his work and pro- 
ceedings, and shall report in detail the number of assistant commis- 
sioners, experts, chemists, agents, and counsel he has employed, with 
their expenses and disbursements. The said commissioner shall have 
a room in the new capitol, to be set apart for his use by the capitol 
commissioner. The said commissioner and assistant commissioners 
and such experts, chemists, agents, and counsel as they shall duly 
authorise for the purpose, shall have full access, egress, and ingress to 
all places of business, factories, farms, buildings, carriages, vessels, 
and cans used in the manufacture and sale of any dairy products or 
any imitation thereof. They shall also have power and authority to 
open any package, can, or vessel containing such articles which may 
be manufactured, sold, or exposed for sale, in violation of the pro- 
visions of this Act, and may inspect the contents therein and may take 



278 APPENDIX. 

therefrom samples for analysis. This section shall not affect the 
tenure of the office of the present commissioner. 

13. Upon the application for a warrant under this Act, the certi- 
ficate of the analyst or chemist of any analysis made by him shall be 
sufficient evidence of the facts therein stated. Every such certificate 
shall be duly signed and acknowledged by such analyst or chemist 
before an officer authorised to take acknowledgments of conveyances 
of real estate. 

14. Courts of special sessions shall have jurisdiction of all cases 
arising under this Act, and their jurisdiction is hereby extended so as 
to enable them to enforce the penalties imposed by any or all sections 
thereof. 

15. In all prosecutions under this Act, one-half of the money shall 
be paid by the court or clerk thereof to the city or county where the 
recovery shall be had, for the support of the poor, except in the city 
and county of New York shall be equally divided between the pension 
funds of the police and fire departments, and the residue shall be paid 
to the Dairy Commissioner, who shall account therefor to the Treasury 
of the State, and be added to any appropriation made to carry out the 
provisions of this Act. All sums of money expended by the Dairy 
Commissioner under the provisions of this Act shall be audited and 
allowed by the Comptroller of the State. Any bond given by any 
officer shall be subject to the provisions of this section. 

16. In all prosecutions under this Act relating to the sale and 
manufacture of unclean, impure, unhealthy, adulterated, or unwhole- 
some milk, if the milk be shown to contain more than eighty-eight 
per centum of water or fluids, or less than twelve per centum of milk 
solids, which shall contain not less than three per centum of fat, it 
shall be declared adulterated, and milk drawn from cows within fifteen 
days before, and five days after, parturition, or from animals fed on 
distillery waste, or any substance in the state of putrefaction or fer- 
mentation, or upon any unhealthy food whatever, shall be declared 
unclean, unhealthy, impure and unwholesome milk. This section 
shall not prevent the feeding of ensilage from silos. 

17. The doing of any thing prohibited being done, and the not 
doing of any thing directed to be done in this Act, shall be presump- 
tive evidence of a wilful intent to violate the different sections and 
provisions thereof. If any person shall suffer any violation of the 
provisions of this Act by his agent, servant, or in any room or building 
occupied or controlled by him, he shall be deemed a principal in such 
violation and punished accordingly. 

18. Chapters four hundred and sixty-seven of the laws of eighteen 
hundred and sixty-two, five hundred and forty-four, and five hundred 
and eighteen of the laws of eighteen hundred and sixty-four, five 
hundred and fifty-nine of the laws of eighteen hundred and sixty-five, 



LEGISLATION. 2 79 

four hundred and fifteen of the laws of eighteen hundred and seventy- 
seven, two hundred and twenty, and two hundred and thirty-seven of 
the laws of eighteen hundred and seventy-eight, four hundred and 
thirty-nine of the laws of eighteen hundred and eighty, and two 
hundred and fourteen of the laws of eighteen hundred and eighty-two, 
are hereby repealed. 

19. If any person shall, by himself or other, violate any of the 
provisions of sections one, two, three, four or five of this Act, or 
knowingly suffer a violation thereof by his agent, or in any building or 
room occupied by him, he shall, in addition to the fines and punish- 
ments therein described for each offence, forfeit and pay a fixed 
penalty of one hundred dollars. If any person, by himself or another, 
shall violate any of the provisions of sections six, seven, or eight of this 
Act, he shall, in addition to the fines and penalties herein prescribed 
for each offence, forfeit and pay a fixed penalty of five hundred dollars. 
Such penalties shall be recovered with costs in any court of this State 
having jurisdiction thereof in an action to be prosecuted by the Dairy 
Commissioner, or any of his assistants in the name of the people of 
the State of New York. 

20. This Act and each section thereof is declared to be enacted 
to prevent deception in the sale of dairy products, and to preserve the 
public health which is endangered by the manufacture, sale or use of 
the articles or substances herein regulated or prohibited. 

21. This Act shall take effect immediately. Sections six and seven 
shall not apply to any product manufactured, or in process of manu- 
facture at the time of the passage of this Act ; but neither this exemp- 
tion nor this Act shall impair the power to prosecute any violations 
heretofore committed of section six of the Act of which this Act is 
supplemental. 



AN Act to amend chapter two hundred and two of the laws of 
eighteen hundred and eighty-four, entitled " An Act to prevent 
deception in sales of dairy products." 

(Passed April 30, 1885). 

The people of the State of New York, represented in Senate and 
Assembly, do enact as follows : — 

Section i. Section seven of chapter two hundred and two of the 
laws of eighteen hundred and eighty-four, entitled " An Act to prevent 
deception in sales of dairy products," is hereby amended to read as 
follows : — 

7. No person shall offer, sell, or expose for sale butter or cheese 
branded or labelled with a false brand or label as to the quality of the 
article, or the county or State in which the article is made. The New 



280 APPENDIX. 

York State Dairy Commissioner is hereby authorised and directed to 
procure and issue to the cheese manufactories of the State, upon 
proper application therefor and under such regulations as to the custody 
and use thereof as he may prescribe, a uniform stencil brand bearing a 
suitable device or motto, and the words " New York State Full Cream 
Cheese." Every brand issued shall be used upon the outside of the 
cheese and also upon the package containing the same, and shall bear a 
different number for each separate manufactory, and the commissioner 
shall keep a book in which shall be registered the name, location and 
number of each manufactory using the said brand, and the name or 
names of the persons at each manufactory authorised to use the same. 
It shall be unlawful to use or permit such stencil brand to be used 
upon any other than full cream cheese or packages containing the 
same. Whoever violates the provisions of this section is guilty of a 
misdemeanour, and for each and every cheese or package so falsely 
branded shall be punished by a fine of not less than twenty-five dollars 
or more than fifty dollars, or imprisonment of not less than fifteen or 
more than thirty days. 

2. This Act shall take effect immediately. 



An Act to protect butter and cheese manufacturers. 

(Passed June 8, 1885, three-fifths being present.) 

The people of the State of New York, represented in Senate and 
Assembly, do enact as follows : — 

Section i. Whoever shall with intent to defraud, sell, supply, or 
bring to be manufactured to any butter or cheese manufactory in this 
State, any milk diluted with water, or in any way adulterated, unclean 
or impure, or milk from which any cream has been taken, or milk 
commonly known as skimmed milk, or whoever shall keep back any 
part of the milk as strippings, or whoever shall knowingly bring or 
supply milk to any butter or cheese manufactory that is tainted or 
sour, or whoever shall knowingly bring or supply to any butter 
or cheese manufactory, milk drawn from cows within fifteen days 
before parturition, or within three days after parturition, or any butter 
or cheese manufacturers who shall knowingly use or allow any of his 
or her employes or any other person to use for his or her benefit, or 
for their own individual benefit, any milk or cream from the milk 
brought to said butter or cheese manufacturer, without the consent of 
all the owners thereof, or any butter or cheese manufacturer who shall 
refuse or neglect to keep or cause to be kept a correct account, open 
to the inspection of any one furnishing milk to such manufacturer, of 
the amount of milk daily received, or of the number of pounds of butter 



LEGISLATION. 28 1 

and the number of cheeses made each day, or of the number cut or 
otherwise disposed of, and the weight of each, shall for each and every 
offence forfeit and pay a sum not less than twenty- five dollars nor more 
than one hundred dollars, with costs of suit, to be sued for in any court 
of competent jurisdiction for the benefit of the person or persons, firm 
or association, or corporation or their assigns upon whom such fraud 
or neglect shall be committed. But nothing in this Act shall affect, 
impair, or repeal any of the provisions of chapter two hundred and two 
of the laws of eighteen hundred and eighty-four, or of the acts amend- 
atory thereof or supplementary thereto. 
2. This Act shall take effect immediately. 



Special Act in relation to the manufacture and sale of vinegar. 

(Passed June 9, 1886.) 

The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate and 
Assembly, do enact as follows : — 

SECTION i. Every. person who manufactures for sale, or offers or 
exposes for sale as cider vinegar, any vinegar not the legitimate pro- 
duct of pure apple juice, known as apple cider, or vinegar not made 
exclusively of said apple cider, or vinegar into which foreign sub- 
stances, drugs or acids have been introduced, as may appear by proper 
test, shall for each offence be punishable by a fine of not less than fifty, 
nor more than one hundred dollars. 

2. Every person who manufactures for sale, or offers for sale, any 
vinegar found upon proper tests to contain any preparation of lead, 
copper, sulphuric acid, or other ingredient injurious to health, shall for 
each such offence be punishable by fine of not less than one hundred 
dollars. 

3. The mayor of cities shall, and the supervisor of towns may, 
annually, appoint one or more persons to be inspectors of vinegar, 
who shall be sworn before entering upon their duties, and who shall 
have power and authority to inspect and examine all vinegar offered 
for sale. 

4. No person shall by himself, his servant or agent, .or as the 
servant or agent of any other person, sell, exchange, deliver, or have in 
his custody or possession, with intent to sell or exchange, or expose or 
offer for sale or exchange any adulterated vinegar, or label, brand or 
sell as cider vinegar, or as apple vinegar, any vinegar not the legiti- 
mate product of pure apple juice, or not made exclusively from apple 
cider. 

5. All vinegars shall be without artificial colouring matter, and shall 



282 



APPENDIX. 



have an acidity equivalent to the presence of not less than four and 
one-half per cent., by weight, of absolute acetic acid, and in the case 
of cider vinegar, shall contain in addition not less than two per cent. 
by weight of cider vinegar solids upon full evaporation over boiling 
water ; and if any vinegar contains any artificial colouring matter or 
less than the above amount of acidity, or in the case of cider vinegar, 
if it contains less than the above amount of acidity or of cider vinegar 
solids, it shall be deemed to be adulterated within the meaning of this 
Act. 

6. Every person making or manufacturing cider vinegar shall brand 
on each head of the cask, barrel or keg containing such vinegar the 
name and residence of the manufacturer, the date when same was 
manufactured, and the words cider vinegar. 

7. Whoever violates any of the provisions of this Act shall be 
punished by a fine not exceeding one hundred dollars. Any person 
who may have suffered any injury or damage by reason of the violation 
of any of the provisions of this Act, may maintain an action in his 
own name against any person violating any of the provisions of this 
Act, to recover the penalties provided for such violation, and one-half 
of the sum recovered shall be retained by him for his own use and the 
other half shall be paid into the city or county treasury where such 
offence was committed for the benefit of such city or county. 

8. This Act shall take effect immediately. 



The following are the Statutes of the State of Mas- 
sachusetts relating to the adulteration of food and drugs : — 

GENERAL LAWS RELATING TO ADULTERATION. 



Adulteration 
prohibited. 
1882, 263, § 1. 



Definition of 
terms " drug ' 
and " food." 
1882, 263, § 2, 



Drugs, how 
adulterated. 
1882, 263, $ 3. 

Specifications. 



Officinal drugs 
may be sold as 
called for, or as 
variation is 



FOOD AND DRUGS. 

Section i. No person shall, within this commonwealth, manu- 
facture for sale, offer for sale, or sell any drug or article of food which 
is adulterated within the meaning of this Act. 

2. The term "drug" as used in this Act shall include all medicines 
for internal or external use, antiseptics, disinfectants, and cosmetics. 
The term " food " as used herein shall include all articles used for food 
or drink by man. 

3. An article shall be deemed to be adulterated within the meaning 
of this Act — 

(a.) In the case of drugs, — (1.) If, when sold under or by a name 
recognised in the United States Pharmacopoeia, it differs from the 
standard of strength, quality, or purity laid down therein, unless the 
order calls for an article inferior to such standard, or unless such 



LEGISLATION. 



283 



difference is made known or so appears to the purchaser at the time 
of such sale ; (2.) If, when sold under or by a name not recognised in 
the United States Pharmacopoeia, but which is found in some other 
pharmacopoeia, or other standard work on materia medica, it differs 
materially from the standard of strength, quality, or purity laid down 
in such work ; (3.) If its strength or purity falls below the professed 
standard under which it is sold : 

(b.) In the case of food — (1.) If any substance or substances have 
been mixed with it so as to reduce, or lower, or injuriously affect its 
quality or strength ; (2.) If any inferior or cheaper substance or sub- 
stances have been substituted wholly or in part for it ; (3.) If any 
valuable constituent has been wholly or in part abstracted from it ; 
(4.) If it is an imitation of, or is sold under the name of another 
article ; (5.) If it consists wholly or in part of a diseased, decomposed, 
putrid, or rotten animal or vegetable substance, whether manufactured 
or not, or in the case of milk, if it is the produce of a diseased animal ; 
(6.) If it is coloured, coated, polished, or powdered, whereby damage 
is concealed, or if it is made to appear better or of greater value than 
it really is ; (7.) If it contains any added or poisonous ingredient, or 
any ingredient which may render it injurious to the health of a person 
consuming it. 

4. The provisions of this Act shall not apply to mixtures or com- 
pounds recognised as ordinary articles of food or drinks, provided that 
the same are not injurious to health, and are distinctly labelled as 
mixtures or compounds. And no prosecutions shall at any time be 
maintained under the said Act concerning any drug the standard of 
strength or purity whereof has been raised since the issue of the last 
edition of the United States Pharmacopoeia, unless and until such 
change of standard has been published throughout the commonwealth. 



5. The State Board of Health, Lunacy, and Charity, shall take 
cognisance of the interests of the public health relating to the sale of 
drugs and food and the adulteration of the same, and shall make all 
necessary investigations and inquiries in reference thereto, and for 
these purposes may appoint inspectors, analysts, and chemists, who 
shall be subject to its supervision and removal. 

Within thirty days after the passage of this Act the said Board 
shall adopt such measures as it may deem necessary to facilitate the 
enforcement hereof, and shall prepare rules and regulations with regard 
to the proper methods of collecting and examining drugs and articles 
of food. Said Board may expend annually an amount not exceeding 
ten thousand dollars for the purpose of carrying out the provisions of 



made known to 
the purchaser. 
1884, 289, $ 7- 



Food, how adul- 
terated. 
Specifications. 



Provisions of 
Act not to apply 
to labelled com- 
pounds or mix- 
tures when not 
injurious to 
health. 

No prosecution 
to be made rela- 
tive to drugs, if 
standard of same 
has been raised 
since the issue of 
the last edition 
of the Pharma- 
copoeia until 
such change has 
been published. 
1884, 289, $ 5. 

State Board shall 
make investiga- 
tions and may 
appoint inspec- 
tors, analysts 
and chemists. 
1882, 263, $ 5. 



The Board shall 
make regula- 
tions as to col- 
lecting and ex- 
amining of food 
and drugs, and 
may expend ten 
thousand dollars 
in carrying out 



284 



APPENDIX. 



the provisions of 
this Act. 
1882, 263, $ 5. 
1884, 289, $ 1. 
Three-fifths to 
be expended in 
relation to milk 
and its products. 
1884, 289, $ 1. 

Samples to be 
furnished to offi- 
cers or agents. 
1882, 263, $ 6. 



this Act : provided, however, that not less than three-fifths of the said 
amount shall be annually expended for the enforcement of the laws 
against the adulteration of milk and milk products. 



Obstruction and 
its penalty. 
1882, 263,$ 7. a 



State Board to 
report prosecu- 
tions and money 
expended. 
18-83, 263, $ 2. 
1884, 289, $ 2. 

Powers of in- 
spectors. 
1884, 289, $ 3. 



Act of 1882 does 
not affect chap- 
ter 57 of the 
Public Statutes. 
1884, 289, $ 4. 

Samples to be 
sealed for bene- 
fit of defendant. 
1884, 289, 8. 



Selling corrupt 
or unwholesome 
provisions with- 
out notice. 
Public Statutes, 
chap. 208, $ 1. 
12 Cush. 499. 

Adulterating 

food. 

Public Statutes, 

chap. 208, $ 3. 



6. Every person offering or exposing for sale, or delivering to a 
purchaser, any drug or article of food included in the provisions of 
this Act, shall furnish to any analyst or other officer or agent ap- 
pointed hereunder, who shall apply to him for the purpose and shall 
tender him the value of the same, a sample sufficient for the purpose 
of the analysis of any such drug or article of food which is in his' 
possession. 

7. Whoever hinders, obstructs, or in any way interferes with any 
inspector, analyst, or other officer appointed hereunder, in the per- 
formance of his duty, and whoever violates any of the provisions of 
this Act, shall be punished by a fine not exceeding fifty dollars for the 
first offence, and not exceeding one hundred dollars for each sub- 
sequent offence. 

8. The State Board of Health, Lunacy, and Charity shall report 
annually to the Legislature the number of prosecutions made under 
said chapter, and an itemised account of all money expended in 
carrying out the provisions thereof. 

9. An inspector appointed under the provisions of said chapter two 
hundred and sixty- three of the Acts of the year eighteen hundred and 
eighty-two shall have the same powers and authority conferred upon 
a city or town inspector by section two of chapter fifty-seven of the 
Public Statutes. 

10. Nothing contained in chapter two hundred and sixty-three of 
the Acts of the year eighteen hundred and eighty-two shall be in any 
way construed as repealing or amending anything contained in chapter 
fifty-seven of the Public Statutes. 

11. Before commencing the analysis of any sample the person 
making the same shall reserve a portion which shall be sealed ; and 
in case of a complaint against any person the reserved portion of the 
sample alleged to be adulterated shall upon application be delivered 
to the defendant or his attorney. 

12. Whoever knowingly sells any kind of diseased, corrupted, or 
unwholesome provisions, whether for meat or drink, without making 
the same fully known to the buyer, shall be punished by imprisonment 
in the jail not exceeding six months, or by fine not exceeding two 
hundred dollars. 

13. Whoever fraudulently adulterates, for the purpose of sale, bread 
or any other substance intended for food, with any substance in- 
jurious to health, or knowingly barters, gives away, sells, or has in 



LECxISLATION. 



285 



possession with intent to sell, any substance intended for food, which 
has been adulterated with any substance injurious to health, shall be 
punished by imprisonment in the jail not exceeding one year, or by 
fine not exceeding three hundred dollars ; and the articles so adul- 
terated shall be forfeited, and destroyed under the direction of the 
court. 

14. Whoever adulterates, for the purpose of sale, any liquor used or 
intended for drink, with Indian cockle, vitriol, grains of paradise, 
opium, alum, capsicum, copperas, laurel-water, logwood, Brazil wood, 
cochineal, sugar of lead, or any other substance which is poisonous or 
injurious to health, and whoever knowingly sells any such liquor so 
adulterated, shall be punished by imprisonment in the State prison 
not exceeding three years ; and the articles so adulterated shall be 
forfeited. 

15. Whoever fraudulently adulterates, for the purpose of sale, any 
drug or medicine, or sells any fraudulently adulterated drug or medi- 
cine, knowing the same to be adulterated, shall be punished by im- 
prisonment in the jail not exceeding one year, or by fine not exceeding 
four hundred dollars ; and such adulterated drugs and medicines shall 
be forfeited, and destroyed under the direction of the court. 

16. Whoever sells arsenic, strychnine, corrosive sublimate, or prussic 
acid, without the written prescription of a physician, shall keep a 
record of the date of such sale, the name of the article, the amount 
thereof sold, and the name of the person or persons to whom de- 
livered ; and for each neglect shall forfeit a sum not exceeding fifty 
dollars. Whoever purchases deadly poisons as aforesaid, and gives a 
false or fictitious name to the vendor, shall be punished by fine not 
exceeding fifty dollars. 



Adulterating 
liquor used for 
drink, with In- 
dian cockle, etc. 
Public Statutes, 
chap. 208, $ 4. 



Adulteration of 
drugs or medi- 
cines. 

Public Statutes, 
chap. 208, 5. 



Persons selling 
certain poisons 
to keep record, 
etc. 



Purchasers who 

give false name, 

etc 

Public Statutes, 

chap. 208, $ 6. 



LAWS RELATIVE TO SPECIAL ARTICLES OF FOOD. 

OF THE INSPECTION AND SALE OF MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS. 

i. The mayor and aldermen of cities shall, and the selectmen of towns 
may, annually appoint one or more persons to be inspectors of milk for 
their respective places, who shall be sworn before entering upon the 
duties of their office. Each inspector shall publish a notice of his 
appointment for two weeks in a newspaper published in his city or 
town, or if no newspaper is published therein, he shall post up such 
notice in two or more public places in such city or town. 

2. Such inspectors shall keep an office, and shall record in books 
kept for the purpose the names and place of business of all persons ?g wers ; o $ 
engaged in the sale of milk within their city or town. Said inspectors " Allen/264.' 
may enter all places where milk is stored or kept for sale, and all 



Appointment of 

inspectors of 

milk. 

Public Statutes, 

chap. 57, $ 1. 



Their duties and 



286 



APPENDIX. 



Persons selling 
milk from car- 
riages to be 
licensed. 
Public Statutes, 
chap. 57, $ 3. 



Persons selling 
milk in stores, 
etc., to be regis- 
tered. 

Public Statutes.. 
chap. 57, $ 4. 

1 Allen, 593. 

2 Allen, 157. 



persons engaged in the sale of milk shall, on the request in writing of 
an inspector, deliver to the person having the request a sample or 
specimen sufficient for the purpose of analysis of the milk then in his 
possession from such can or receptacle as shall be designated by the 
inspector or the person bearing the request. Said inspector shall 
cause the sample or specimen of milk so delivered to be analysed or 
otherwise satisfactorily tested, the results of which analysis or test 
they shall record and preserve as evidence. The inspectors shall 
receive such compensation as the mayor and alderman or selectmen 
may determine. 

3. In all cities, and in all towns in which there is an inspector of 
milk, every person who conveys milk in carriages or otherwise for the 
purpose of selling the same in such city or town shall annually, on the 
first day of May, or within thirty days thereafter, be licensed by the 
inspector or inspectors of milk of such city or town to sell milk within 
the limits thereof, and shall pay to such inspector or inspectors fifty 
cents each to the use of the city or town. The inspector or inspectors 
shall pay over monthly to the treasurer of such city or town all sums 
collected by him or them. Licenses shall be issued only in the names 
of the owners of carriages or other vehicles, and shall for the purposes 
of this chapter be conclusive evidence of ownership. No license shall 
be sold, assigned, or transferred. Each license shall record the name, 
residence, place of business, number of carriages or other vehicles 
used, name and residence of every driver or other person engaged in 
carrying or selling said milk, and the number of the license. Each 
licensee shall before engaging in the sale of milk, cause his name, the 
number of his license, and his place of business, to be legibly placed 
on each outer side of all carriages or vehicles used by him in the 
conveyance and sale of milk, and he shall report to the inspector or 
inspectors any change of driver or other person employed by him 
which may occur during the term of his license. Whoever, without 
being first licensed under the provisions of this section, sells milk or 
exposes it for sale from carriages or other vehicles, or has it in his 
custody or possession with intent so to sell, and whoever violates any 
of the provisions of this section, shall for a first offence be punished 
by fine of not less than thirty nor more than one hundred dollars ; for 
a second offence by fine of not less than fifty nor more than three 
hundred dollars ; and for a subsequent offence by fine of fifty dollars 
and by imprisonment in the house of correction for not less than thirty 
nor more than sixty days. 

4. Every person before selling milk or offering it for sale in a store, 
booth, stand, or market-place in a city or in a town in which an 
inspector or inspectors of milk are appointed, shall register in the 
books of such inspector or inspectors, and shall pay to him or them 
fifty cents to the use of such city or town ; and whoever neglects so 



LEGISLATION. 



287 



to register shall be punished for each offence by fine not exceeding 
twenty dollars. 

5. Whoever by himself or by his servant or agent, or as the servant 
or agent of any other person, sells, exchanges, or delivers, or has in 
his custody or possession with intent to sell or exchange, or exposes or 
offers for sale or exchange, adulterated milk, or milk to which water 
or any foreign substance has been added, or milk produced from cows 
fed on the refuse of distilleries or from sick or diseased cows, shall 
for a first offence be punished by fine of not less than fifty nor more 
than two hundred dollars ; for a second offence by fine of not less 
than one hundred nor more than three hundred dollars, or by impri- 
sonment in the house of correction for not less than thirty nor more 
than sixty days ; and for a subsequent offence by fine of fifty dollars 
and by imprisonment in the house of correction for not less than sixty 
nor more than ninety days. 

6. Whoever by himself or by his servant or as the servant or agent 
of any other person, sells, exchanges, or delivers, or has in his custody 
or possession with intent to sell or exchange, or exposes or offers for 
sale as pure milk, any milk from which the cream or a part thereof 
has been removed, shall be punished by the penalties provided in the 
preceding section. 

7. No dealer in milk, and no servant or agent of such a dealer, shall 
sell, exchange, or deliver, or have in his custody or possession, with 
intent to sell, exchange, or deliver, milk from which the cream or any 
part thereof has been removed, unless in a conspicuous place above 
the centre upon the outside of every vessel, can, or package from or 
in which such milk is sold, the words "skimmed milk" are distinctly 
marked in letters not less than one inch in length. Whoever violates 
the provisions of this section shall be punished by the penalties pro- 
vided by section 5. 

8. Any inspector of milk, and any servant or agent of an inspector 
who wilfully connives at or assists in a violation of the provisions of 
this chapter, and whoever hinders, obstructs, or in any way interferes 
with any inspector of milk, or any servant or agent of an inspector in 
the performance of his duty, shall be punished by fine of not less than 
one hundred nor more than three hundred dollars, or by imprisonment 
for not less than thirty nor more than sixty days. 

9. In all prosecutions under this chapter, if the milk is shown upon 
analysis to contain more than eighty-seven per cent, of watery fluid, or 
to contain less than thirteen per cent, of milk solids, it shall be deemed 
for the purposes of this chapter to be adulterated. 

10. It shall be the duty of every inspector to institute a complaint 
for a violation of any of the provisions of this chapter on the informa- 
tion of any person who lays before him satisfactory evidence by which 
to sustain such complaint. 



Penalty for sell- 
ing, etc., adul- 
terated milk, 
etc. 

Public Statutes, 
chap. 57, $ 5. 

9 Allen, 499. 

10 Allen, 199. 
ir Allen, 264. 
107 Mass., 194. 



Penalty for sell- 
ing milk from 
which cream has 
been removed. 
Public Statutes, 
chap. 57, $ 6. 



Vessels contain- 
ing milk from 
which cream has 
been removed 
to be marked 
" skimmed 
milk." 

Public Statutes, 
chap. 57, $ 7. 



Penalty on in- 
spectors, etc., 
for conniving, 
etc. 

Public Statutes, 
chap. 57, $ 8. 
1884, 310, $ 5. 



What milk to be 
deemed adulter- 
ated. 

Public Statutes, 
chap. 57, $ 9. 

Inspectors to 
institute 
complaints. 
Public Statutes, 
chap. 57, $ 10. 



288 



APPENDIX. 



Names, etc., of 
persons con- 
victed to be 
published. 
Public Statutes, 
chap. 57, $ ii. 

Milk cans to 
hold eight 
quarts when, etc. 
Public Statutes, 
chap. 57, $ 12. 

Spurious butter 
sold in boxes 
tubs and firkins 
to be plainly- 
marked as such. 
1884, 310, $ 1. 



Retail packages 
to be marked 
on outside of 
wrapper. 



Spurious cheese 
to be plainly- 
marked as such. 
Public Statutes, 
chap. 56, $ 18. 



Wrappers to be 
marked. 



Penalty for 
fraudulent sales. 
Public Statutes, 
chap. 56, $ 19. 



11. Each inspector shall cause the name and place of business of 
every person convicted of selling adulterated milk, or of having the 
same in his possession with intent to sell, to be published in two news- 
papers in the county in which the offence was committed. 

12. When milk is sold by the can, such can shall hold eight quarts, 
and no more. 

13. Whoever, by himself or his agents, sells, exposes for sale, or 
has in his possession with intent to sell, any article, substance or 
compound, made in imitation or semblance of butter, or as a substitute 
for butter, and not made exclusively and wholly of milk or cream, or 
containing any fats, oils or grease not produced from milk or cream,' 
shall have the words " imitation butter," or " oleomargarine," stamped, 
labelled or marked, in printed letters of plain Roman type, not less 
than one inch in length, so that said word cannot be easily defaced, 
upon the top and side of every tub, firkin, box or package containing 
any of said article, substance, or compound. And in cases of retail 
sales of any of said article, substance or compound, not in the original 
packages, the seller shall, by himself or his agents, attach to each 
package so sold, and shall deliver therewith to the purchaser, a label 
or wrapper bearing in a conspicuous place upon the outside of the 
package the words " imitation butter " or " oleomargarine " in printed 
letters of plain Roman type, not less than one half inch in length. 

14. Whoever, by himself or his agents, sells, exposes for sale, or 
has in his possession with intent to sell, any article, substance, or 
compound, made in imitation or semblance of cheese, or as a substitute 
for cheese, and not made exclusively and wholly of milk or cream, or 
containing any fats, oils or grease not produced from milk or cream, 
shall have the words "imitation cheese" stamped, labelled, or marked 
in printed letters of plain Roman type not less than one inch in length, 
so that said words cannot be easily defaced, upon the side of every 
cheese cloth or band around the same, and upon the top and side of 
every tub, firkin, box, or package containing any of said article, sub- 
stance or compound. And in case of retail sales of any of said article, 
substance or compound not in the original packages, the seller shall, 
by himself or his agents, attach to each package so sold at retail, and 
shall deliver therewith to the purchaser a label or wrapper bearing 
in a conspicuous place upon the outside of the package the words 
"imitation cheese," in printed letters of plain Roman type not less 
than one half inch in length. 

15. Whoever sells, exposes for sale, or has in his possession with 
intent to sell, any article, substance, or compound made in imitation 
or semblance of butter, or as a substitute for butter, except as pro- 
vided in section one ; whoever sells, exposes for sale, or has in his 
possession with intent to sell, any article, substance, or compound 



LEGISLATION. 



289 



made in imitation or semblance of cheese, or as a substitute for cheese, 
except as provided in section two, and whoever shall deface, erase, 
cancel, or remove any mark, stamp, brand, label, or wrapper pro- 
vided for by this Act, or change the contents of any box, tub, article, 
and package marked, stamped, or labelled as aforesaid, with intent to 
deceive as to the contents of said box, tub, article, or package, shall 
for every such offence forfeit and pay a fine of one hundred dollars, 
and for a second and each subsequent offence a fine of two hundred 
dollars, to be recovered with costs in any court of this commonwealth 
of competent jurisdiction ; and any fine paid shall go to the city or 
town where the offence was committed. 

16. Inspectors of milk shall institute complaints for violations of the 
provisions of the three preceding sections when they have reasonable 
cause to believe that such provisions have been violated, and on the 
information of any person who lays before them satisfactory evidence 
by which to sustain such complaint. Said inspectors may enter all 
places where butter or cheese is stored or kept for sale, and said 
inspectors shall also take specimens of suspected butter and cheese 
and cause them to be analysed or otherwise satisfactorily tested, the 
result of which analysis or test they shall record and preserve as 
evidence ; and a certificate of such result, sworn to by the analyser, 
shall be admitted in evidence in all prosecutions under this and the 
three preceding sections. The expense of such analysis or test, not 
exceeding twenty dollars in any one case, may be included in the 
costs of such prosecutions. Whoever hinders, obstructs, or in any 
way interferes with any inspector, or any agent of an inspector, in the 
performance of his duty, shall be punished by a fine of fifty dollars for 
the first offence, and of one hundred dollars for each subsequent 
offence. 

17. For the purposes of the four preceding sections the terms 
" butter " and " cheese " shall mean the products which are usually 
known by these names, and are manufactured exclusively from milk 
or cream, with salt and rennet, and with or without colouring matter. 

18. Before commencing the analysis of any sample the person 
making the same shall reserve a portion which shall be sealed ; and in 
case of a complaint against any person the reserved portion of the 
sample alleged to be adulterated shall upon application be delivered to 
the defendant or his attorney. 



Complaints for 

violations to be 

instituted by 

inspectors of 

milk. 

1884, 310, $ 2. 



Terms "butter" 
and " cheese" 
defined. 

Public Statutes, 
chap. 56, $ 21. 

Portion of sam- 
ple to be re- 
served for de- 
fendant, 
1884, 310, $ 4. 



OF THE SALE OF CHOCOLATE. 



28. No manufacturer of chocolate shall make any cake of chocolate Chocolate, how 

except in pans in which are stamped the first letter of his christian pubiic'sSt'utes, 

name, the whole of his surname, the name of the town where he cha P- 6o > $ 8 - 

U 



290 



APPENDIX. 



Ingredients of. 



Boxes, how 
branded. 
Public Statutes, 
chap. 60, $ 9. 



Boxes, when 

may be seized, 

etc. 

Public Statutes, 

chap. 60, $ 10. 



resides, and the quality of the chocolate in figures, No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, 
as the case may be, and the letters Mass. 

29. Number one shall be made of cocoa of the first quality, and 
number two of cocoa of the second quality, and both shall be free from 
adulteration ; number three may be made of the inferior kinds and 
qualities of cocoa. Each box containing chocolate shall be branded 
on the end thereof with the word chocolate, the name of the manu- 
facturer, the, name of the town where it was manufactured, and the 
quality, as described and directed in the preceding section for the 
pans. 

30. If chocolate manufactured in this commonwealth is offered for 
sale or found within the same, not being of one of the qualities de- - 
scribed in the two preceding sections and marked as therein directed, 
the same may be seized and libelled. 



Sale of adulter- 
ated vinegar. 
Penalty. 
Public Statutes, 
chap. 60, $ 69. 
1883, 257, $ I- 



Sale of vinegar 
containing in- 
gredients inju- 
rious to health. 
Penalty. 
Public Statutes, 
chap. 60, $ 70. 

Appointment of 
inspectors. 
Public Statutes, 
chap. 60, $ 71. 



Compensation 
of inspectors. 
1883, chap. 257, 



OF THE ADULTERATION OF VINEGAR. 

31. Every person who manufactures for sale or offers or exposes for 
sale as cider vinegar, any vinegar not the legitimate product of pure 
apple juice, known as apple cider or vinegar, not made exclusively of 
said apple cider or vinegar, into which any foreign substances, in- 
gredients, drugs or acids have been introduced, as may appear by 
proper tests, shall for each such offence be punished by fine of not less 
than fifty nor more than one hundred dollars. 

32. Every person who manufactures for sale, or offers or exposes for 
sale, any vinegar found upon proper tests to contain any preparation 
of lead, copper, sulphuric acid, or other ingredients injurious to health, 
shall for each such offence be punished by fine of not less than one 
hundred dollars. 

33. The mayor and aldermen of cities shall, and the selectmen of 
towns may, annually appoint one or more persons to be inspectors of 
vinegar for their respective places, who shall be sworn before entering 
upon their duties. 

34. Any city or town in which an inspector shall be appointed under 
the preceding section, may provide compensation for such inspector 
from the time of such appointment, and in default of such provision 
shall be liable in an action at law for reasonable compensation for 
services performed under such appointment. 



LEGISLATION. 



29I 



(Chap. 307, Acts of 1884.) 

An Act to prevent the adulteration of vinegar. 

Be it enacted &*c, as follows : — 

Section i. No person shall by himself, his servant or agent or as 
the servant or agent of any other person, sell, exchange, deliver or 
have in his custody or possession with intent to sell or exchange, or 
expose or offer for sale or exchange any adulterated vinegar, or label, 
brand or sell as cider vinegar, or as apple vinegar, any vinegar not the 
legitimate product of pure apple juice, or not made exclusively from 
apple cider. 

2. All vinegar shall have an acidity equivalent to the presence of 
not less than five per cent, by weight of absolute acetic acid, and in 
the case of cider vinegar shall contain in addition not less than one 
and one-half per cent, by weight of cider vinegar solids upon full 
evaporation over boiling water, and if any vinegar contains less than 
the above amount of acidity, or if any cider vinegar contains less than 
the above amount of cider vinegar solids, such vinegar shall be 
deemed to be adulterated within the meaning of this Act. 

3. It shall be the duty of the inspectors of milk who may be ap- 
pointed by any city or town to enforce the provisions of this Act. 

4. Whoever violates any of the provisions of this Act shall be 
punished by fine not exceeding one hundred dollars. 

5. All Acts or parts of Acts inconsistent with this Act are hereby 
repealed. 

Approved June 2, 1884, 



Sale of adulter- 
ated vinegar. 



Standard of vine- 
gar prescribed. 



Milk inspectors 
to enforce Act. 



Penalty for 
violation. 



The method of testing vinegar, used by Dr. B. F. Daven- 
port, late Vinegar Inspector of Boston, is as follows : — 

The following detailed practical method of determining whether a 
sample of " cider vinegar or apple vinegar " conforms to the require- 
ments of the Statute of April 1885, relating thereto, which requires 
that it should be not only the legitimate and exclusive product of pure 
apple juice or cider, but also that it should not fall below the quality of 
possessing an acidity equivalent to the presence of not less than 4I per 
cent, by weight of absolute — that is, monohydrated — acetic acid, and 
should yield upon full evaporation at the temperature of boiling water not 
less than 2 per cent, by weight of cider vinegar solids, may prove of 
interest to those dealing in the article. As the limits set by the Statute 
are in per cents, by weight, the portion of vinegar taken for the tests 

U 2 



292 APPENDIX. 

should, for perfect accuracy, be also taken by weight — that is, the 
quantities of 6 and of 10 grammes are to be taken for the tests of 
strength and of residue ; but as taking it by measure, if of about the 
ordinary atmospheric temperature of 60 to 70 degrees F. will make the 
apparent percentage at most only 1 to 2 per cent, of itself greater than 
the true — that is, will make a true 5 per cent, vinegar appear to be, 
say, from 5*05 to 5*10 per cent. — measuring proves in practice to be 
accurate enough for all common commercial purposes, and therefore 
the quantities of 6 and of 10 cubic centimetres by measure may be 
taken in place of as many grammes. 

All the measuring apparatus necessary for making the legal tests is 
one of the measuring tubes called burettes. It is most convenient to' 
have this of a size to contain 25 to 50 c.c. — that is, cubic centimetres 
— and have these divided into tenths. The best form of burette is the 
Mohr's, which is closed by a glass stop-cock. Besides this, only a 
dropping-tube, called a pipette, graduated to deliver 6 and 10 c.c, will 
be needed. These tubes are to be obtained of any philosophical or 
chemical apparatus dealer, being articles generally kept in stock by 
them for common use, like yard-sticks. 

The only two chemicals needed in determining the strength of a 
vinegar are such as can be obtained of any competent apothecary in any 
city of the State. They are simply a small vial of a 1 per cent, solu- 
tion of Phenol-phthalein in diluted alcohol, and a sufficient quantity of 
a solution of caustic soda, prepared as directed for " Volumetric Solu- 
tion of Soda " upon page 399 of the last ' U. S. Pharmacopoeia,' a book 
which is in the hands of every competent apothecary, as it contains the 
formulae according to which he is required by the law of the State to 
prepare all such medicinal preparations as are mentioned therein. 

Having these, the procedure for making the test will be as follows : 
— Fill the pipette by suction, and then quickly close the top of it with 
the forefinger. Raise the tube out of the sample of vinegar, and let it 
empty out by drops exactly down to the top graduation-mark, this 
bearing the mark of o* c.c. Then holding it over a white mug or cup, 
let it run out exactly down to the 6 c.c. mark. Dilute the 6 c.c. of 
vinegar thus measured out into the mug with sufficient clean water to 
make it look about white, and then add to it about three drops of the 
Phenol-phthalein solution. Then having prepared the burette by fill- 
ing it up to the top, zero, or any other noted mark of the graduation, 
with the volumetric solution of soda, let the soda solution run out 
cautiously into the diluted vinegar, which should be constantly stirred 
about. As soon as the vinegar in the mug begins to darken, the soda 
should then only be allowed to run into it by drops. This dropping 
is thus continued until at last a final drop of soda turns the vinegar 
suddenly to a permanent pink or cherry colour, which will not disappear 
upon further stirring. By now reading off from the graduations of the 



LEGISLATION. 293 

burette the number of full c.c. divisions and of tenths which have been 
emptied out to bring about this change of colour in the vinegar is known 
the per cents, and tenths of acidity equivalent to true acetic acid con- 
tained in the vinegar being examined. This, if it is a pure cider 
vinegar, and well made, will be upon the average about 6 per cent., 
but never under 5 per cent. If, in like manner, 10 c.c. of the vinegar 
is exactly measured off by the pipette into a small light porcelain dish, 
and then evaporated fully to dryness over boiling water, the number of 
grammes weight gained by the dish, when multiplied by ten, gives the 
percentage of solid residue contained in the vinegar. 

There are certain characteristics peculiar to the residue of a pure 
cider vinegar, the principal of which are the following : — It will be 
about 3 per cent, in weight, and never less than 2 per cent. It is 
always soft, viscid, of apple flavour, somewhat acid and astringent in 
taste. A drop of it taken up in a clean loop of platinum or of iron 
wire, and ignited in a colourless Bunsen gas-lamp flame, imparts to it 
the pale lilac colour of a pure potash salt, without any yellow, due to 
sodium, being visible. The ignited residue left in the loop of wire will 
be a fusible bead of quite a good size, and it will have a strong alkaline 
reaction upon moistened test-paper, effervescing briskly when immersed 
in an acid. The presence in a vinegar of the slightest trace of any 
free mineral acid will prevent the ignited residue having any alkaline 
reaction, or effervescing with acids. The presence of any practical 
amount of commercial acetic acid added to " tone up " the strength of 
the vinegar will cause the igniting residue to impart another colour to 
the Bunsen flame, and the residue itself will have a smoky pyroligneous 
taste or odour. Any corn glucose used in the vinegar will cause its 
residue when ignited to emit the characteristic odour of burning corn, 
and, as the last spark glows through the carbonised mass, to usually 
emit the familiar garlic odour of arsenic, for the common oil of vitriol 
usually used in the production of glucose is now mostly derived from 
pyrites, which almost always contain arsenic. A glucose vinegar which 
has been made without vaporising the alcohol after the fermentation 
of the glucose will also have a strong reducing action upon a copper 
salt in an alkaline solution, and also will give a heavy precipitation of 
lime with ammonium oxalate. A true malt vinegar always contains 
phosphates, and a wine vinegar cream of tartar. The presence of any 
acrid vegetable substance in a vinegar is known by the residue having 
a pungent taste, especially if before the evaporation the vinegar has 
been exactly neutralised with soda . 

In a pure apple cider vinegar hydrogen sulphide gas will not cause 
any discoloration, nor will the addition of a solution of either barium 
nitrate, silver nitrate, or ammonium oxalate cause anything more than 
the very slightest perceptible turbidity. But the addition of some 
solution of lead acetate — that is, of sugar of lead— will cause an im- 



294 



APPENDIX. 



mediate voluminous and flocculent precipitation, which will all settle 
out in about ten minutes, leaving a clear fluid above. In most of the 
so-called " apple vinegars," made with second pressings of the ferment- 
ing pumice, the addition of some of this lead solution will cause but a 
slight turbidity, without any precipitate settling out for several hours, 
and even then the precipitate will not be of the same appearance as 
in apple cider vinegar. 

Sophistications of cider vinegar that will not be detected by some 
one or more of the above given tests are not likely to be met with, for 
the simple reason that they are not profitable. To translate percentages 
of acid strength into the old commercial terms of grains of soda bicar- 
bonate per troy ounce, the per cent, may be multiplied by 6-72, or, vice 
versd, divide the grains by the same factor. To reduce it into grains 
of potash bicarbonate 8 would be the factor to be used in like manner. 



The general Adulteration of Food Law of the State of 
New Jersey is the same as that of New York. The 
following is a copy of a special Act in relation to the 
sale of adulterated milk : — 



Persons selling 
or offering for 
sale skimmed 
milk, to solder 
a label or tag 
upon can or 
package. 



Penalty for vio- 
lating this sec- 
tion. 



Penalty for sell- 
ing or offering 
for sale impure 
or adulterated 
milk. 



An Act to prevent the adulteration of milk and to regulate the sale 

of milk. 

1. Be it enacted by the Senate and General Assembly of the 
State of New Jersey, that every person who shall sell, or who shall 
offer or expose for sale, or who shall transport or carry, or who shall 
have in possession with intent to sell, or offer for sale, any milk from 
which the cream, or any part thereof has been removed, shall dis- 
tinctly, durably and permanently solder a label, tag or mark of metal 
in a conspicuous place upon the outside and not more than six inches 
from the top of every can, vessel or package containing such milk, and 
said metal label, tag or mark shall have the words " skimmed milk " 
stamped, engraved or indented thereon in letters not less than one inch 
in height, and such milk shall only be sold or shipped in or retailed 
out of a can, vessel or package so marked, and every person who shall 
violate the provisions of this section shall be deemed guilty of a mis- 
demeanour, and on conviction thereof shall be subject to the penalties 
prescribed in section eight of this Act. 

2. And be it enacted, that every person who shall sell, or who shall 
offer for sale, or who shall transport or carry, for the purposes of sale, 
or who shall have in possession with intent to sell or offer for sale, any 
impure, adulterated or unwholesome milk, shall be deemed guilty of a 



LEGISLATION. 295 

misdemeanour, and on conviction thereof shall be subject to the 
penalties prescribed in section eight of this Act. 

3. And be it enacted, that every person who shall adulterate milk or Penalty for 
who shall keep cows for the production of milk, in a crowded or un- miik'andkfep- 
healthful condition, or feed the same on food that produces impure, in s c° ws in an 
diseased or unwholesome milk, shall be deemed guilty of a misde- ditfob/etc. 00 " 
meanour, and on conviction thereof, 'shall be subject to the penalties 
prescribed in section eight of this Act. 

4. And be it enacted, that the addition of water or any substance or Addition of 
thing is hereby declared an adulteration; and milk that is obtained water or other 

J substance de- 

from animals that are fed on distillery waste, usually called " swill," or dared an adul- 
upon any substance in a state of putrefaction or rottenness, or upon teratlorK 
any substance of an unhealthful nature, is hereby declared to be impure 
and unwholesome, and any person 6ffending as aforesaid shall be 
deemed guilty of a misdemeanour, and on conviction thereof shall be 
subject to the penalties prescribed in section eight of this Act. 

5. And be it enacted, that every person who shall feed cows on dis- Penalty for 
tillery waste, usually called " swill," or upon any substance in a state of ^unwhdi? 
putrefaction, or rottenness or upon any substance of an unwholesome some sub- 
nature, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanour, and on conviction 

thereof shall be subject to the penalties prescribed in section eight of 
this Act. 

6. And be it enacted, that every person who shall sell, or who shall Penalty for 
offer for sale any milk that has been exposed to, or contaminated by fngf"? sale mifk 
the emanations, discharge or exhalations from persons sick with scar- exposed to cer- 
let fever, measles, diphtheria, small pox, typhoid fever, or any con- 
tagious disease by which the health or life of any person may be 
endangered or compromised, shall be guilty of a misdemeanour, and on 
conviction thereof shall be subject to the penalties prescribed in section 

eight of this Act. 

7. And be it enacted, that in all prosecutions under this Act, if the ^en milk is 
milk shall be shown, upon analysis, to contain more than eighty-seven deemed to be 
per centum of watery fluids, or to contain less than thirteen per centum 

of milk solids, it shall be deemed, for the purposes of this Act, to be 
adulterated. 

8. And be it enacted, that every person who shall violate any of the penalty for 
provisions of this Act shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanour, and, "oktips the 
upon conviction thereof, shall be punished by a fine of not less than this Act. 
fifty dollars, nor more than two hundred dollars, or imprisonment in 

the county jail for not less than thirty days, nor more than ninety days, 
or both, at the discretion of the court, and if the fine is not imme- 
diately paid, shall be imprisoned for not less than thirty days, or 
until said fine shall be paid, and for a second offence by a fine of not 
less than one hundred dollars, nor more than three hundred dollars, or 
by imprisonment in the county jail for not less than sixty days, nor 



296 



APPENDIX. 



Penalties — how 
recovered. 



State Board of 
Health em- 
powered to ap- 
point an inspec- 
tor of milk. 
Compensation 
and expenses — 
how paid. 



Duties of in- 
spector. 



Inspector to ad- 
vertise name 
and place of 
business of per- 
sons convicted 
of violating this 
Act. 



more than ninety days, or both, at the discretion of the court, and for 
any subsequent offence by a fine of fifty dollars and imprisonment in 
the county jail not less than sixty nor more than ninety days ; and on 
trial for such misdemeanour or penalty, the sale, or offer for sale, or 
exposure for sale, of milk or articles contrary to the provisions of this 
Act, shall be presumptive evidence of knowledge by the accused of the 
character of the milk or article so sold, or offered, or exposed for sale, 
and that the can, vessel or package was not marked as required by 
this Act. 

9. And be it enacted, that all penalties imposed under the provisions 
of this Act may be sued for in any court having competent jurisdiction, 
one-half the fine to go to the person making the complaint, and the 
other half to be paid to the county collector for the benefit of the 
county ; any court of competent jurisdiction in this state shall have 
jurisdiction to try and dispose of all and any of the offences arising 
in the same county against the provisions of this Act, and every justice 
of the peace shall have jurisdiction within his county of actions to 
recover any penalty hereby given or created. 

10. And be it enacted, that the State Board of Health is hereby 
empowered and directed to appoint, each year, a competent person, 
who shall act as State inspector of milk, at a salary of eight hundred 
dollars per annum, payable by the treasurer of this State, by warrant 
of the comptroller, in quarterly payments, for the purposes of this Act, 
and in addition thereto, said inspector shall be paid his actual travelling 
expenses while in the performance of his duties, and actual expenses 
of suits brought by him under this Act, payable by the treasurer of 
this State by warrant of the comptroller ; said inspector shall act until 
removed by said board, or until his successor is appointed, and shall 
make such reports to said board, at such time as it may direct ; said 
inspector, having reason to believe the provisions of this Act are being 
violated, shall have power to open any can, vessel, or package con- 
taining milk and not marked as directed by the first section of this 
Act, whether sealed, locked or otherwise, or whether in transit or 
otherwise ; and if, upon inspection, he shall find such can, vessel or 
package to contain any milk which has been adulterated, or from 
which the cream, or any part thereof, has been removed, or which is 
sold, offered or exposed for sale, or held in possession with intent to 
sell or offer for sale, in violation of any section of this Act, said 
inspector is empowered to condemn the same and pour the contents 
of such can, vessel or package upon the ground, and bring suit against 
the person or party so violating the law, and the penalty, when so 
collected by such suit, shall be paid into the treasury of this State, 
and said inspector is directed to cause the name and place of business 
of all persons convicted of violating any section of this Act to be 
published once in two newspapers in the county in which the offence 



LEGISLATION. 297 

is committed ; and said inspector is empowered to appoint one or 
more deputies, who shall have power to inspect milk, as provided by 
this Act, and who shall be empowered to act as complainant, as pro- 
vided by section nine of this Act ; provided, that no expense be Proviso, 
incurred to the State by action or appointment in lieu thereof of said 
deputies. 

11. And be it enacted, that said State inspector of milk shall also inspector to be 
be a public analyst, and shall make analyses and investigations of 
food, drugs, and other substances, as he may be directed so to do by 
the State Board of Health. 

1 2. And be it enacted, that an Act entitled " An Act to prevent the Certain Acts re- 
adulteration of milk, and to prevent traffic in impure and unwhole- 
some milk," approved April seventh, one thousand eight hundred and 
seventy-five, and an Act, entitled "An Act to regulate the sale of 
milk," approved April fifth, one thousand eight hundred and seventy- 
eight, and an Act entitled " A supplement to an Act to regulate the 
sale of milk, approved April fifth, one thousand eight hundred and 
seventy-eight," approved March twelfth, one thousand eight hundred 
and eighty," are hereby repealed. 

13. And be it enacted, that this Act shall take place immediately. 
Approved March 22, 1881. 



a public analyst. 



pealed. 



The New Jersey State Board of Health has adopted the 
following rules for the government of its inspectors and 
analysts : — 

Duties of Inspectors. 

1. The inspector is to buy samples of food or drugs, and to seal 
each sample in the presence of a witness. 

2. The inspector must affix to each sample a label bearing a number, 
his initials, and the date of purchase. 

3. Under no circumstance is the inspector to inform the analyst as 
to the source of the sample before the analysis shall have been com- 
pleted and formally reported to the President or Secretary of the State 
Board of Health. 

4. Inspectors are to keep a record of each sample as follows : — 

(1). Number of sample. 
(2). Date and time of purchase. 
(3). Name of witness to sealing. 
(4). Name and address of seller. 



298 APPENDIX. 

(5) Name and address of producer, manufacturer or wholesaler, 

when known, with marks on original package. 

(6) Name of analyst and date of sending. 

(7) How sent to analyst. 

5. If the seller desires a portion of the sample, the inspector is to 
deliver it under seal. The duplicate sample left with seller should 
have a label containing the same marks as are affixed to the portion 
taken by the inspector. 

6. The inspector is to deliver the sample to the analyst, taking 'his 
receipt for the same, or he may send it by registered mail, express or 
special messenger. 

Duties of the Analysts, 

1. The analyst is to analyse the samples immediately upon receipt 
thereof. 

2. Samples, with the exception of milk and similar perishable 
articles, are to be divided by the analyst and a portion sealed up, and 
a copy of the. original label affixed. These duplicates are to be sent 
to the Secretary of the State Board of Health at the end of each month, 
and to be retained by him until demanded for another analysis, as 
provided for in section 3 of these Rules. 

3. Should the result obtained by any analyst be disputed in any 
case, an appeal may be made to the State Board of Health, through 
its secretary, by the defendant or person selling the sample, or his 
attorney, and said secretary shall then require another member of the 
Committee of Public Analysts to repeat the analysis, using the duplicate 
sample for such purpose. But when an appeal shall be made, a sum 
of money sufficient to cover the expenses of the second analysis shall 
be deposited with the President of the State Board of Health, which 
sum shall be paid over to the analyst designated by the President and 
Secretary of the Board to perform the second analysis, in case the 
analysis shall be found to agree with the first in all essential particulars. 

4. In the case of all articles having a standard of purity fixed by 
any of the laws of the State, the certificate of the analyst should show 
the relation of the article in question to that standard. 

5. Where standards of strength, purity or quality are not fixed by 
law, the Committee of Analysts shall present to the State Board of 
Health such standard as in their judgment should be fixed. 

6. Each analyst should keep a record book, in which should be 
entered notes, as follows : — 

(1) From whom the sample is received. 

(2) Date, time and manner in which the sample was received. 

(3) Marks on package, sealed or not. 

(4) Results of analysis in detail. 

This record should be produced at each meeting of the committee. 



LEGISLATION. 299 

7. At the completion of the analysis a certificate in the form given 
below should be forwarded to the person from whom the sample was 
received, and a duplicate copy sent to the State Board of Health. 

Certificate. 

To whom it may concern. 

I, — , a member of the Committee of Public 

Analysts, appointed by the State Board of Health of New Jersey under the 
provisions of an Act entitled " An Act to prevent the adulteration of food and 
drugs," approved March 25th, 1881, do hereby certify that I received from 

, on the day of , 188 , 

a sample of , sealed as require by the rules of said 

Board, and bearing the following marks, to wit : 

I carefully mixed said samples and have analysed the same, and hereby 
certify and declare the results of my analysis to be as follows : 

{Signature^ 



Exceptions. 

The following exceptions are adopted : — 

Mustard. — Compounds of mustard, with rice flour, starch, or flour, 
may be sold if each package is marked " Compound Mustard," and if 
not more than 25 per cent, of such substance is added to the mustard. 

Coffee. — Compounds of coffee with chicory, rye, wheat, or other 
cereals, may be sold if the package is marked " A Mixture," and if the 
label states the per cent, of coffee contained in said mixture. 

Oleomargarine and other imitation dairy products may be sold if 
each package is marked with the name of the substance, and in all 
respects fulfils the terms of the special law as to these. 

Syrups. — When mixed with glucose, syrup may be sold if the package 
is marked " A Mixture." 



The following is a summary of the laws of various States 
and Territories relative to Oleomargarine :* — 

States. 
California. 

" An Act to prevent the sale of oleomargarine, under the name and 
pretence that the said commodity is butter." 

This law is restrictive, requires the word " oleomargarine " to be 
branded on the package. 

* Second Report of the New York State Dairy Commissioner. 



500 APPENDIX. 

The penalty is from fifty dollars to two hundred dollars, or im- 
prisonment from fifty to two hundred days, or both. 

" An Act to prevent fraud and deception in the sale of butter and 
cheese." 

This law is restrictive, requiring the article to be manufactured and 
sold under its appropriate name. 

Penalty is from ten dollars to five hundred dollars or imprisonment 
from ten to ninety days, or both. 

Approved, March 2, 1881. 

"An Act to prevent the sale or disposition as butter of the sub- 
stance known as ' oleomargarine,' or ' oleomargarine butter,' and when 
1 oleomargarine ' or ' oleomargarine butter ' is sold or disposed of re- 
quiring notice thereof to be given." 

This law is restrictive, requiring branding, also requiring hotel- 
keepers, etc., to keep posted up in their places of business in three 
places, the words " oleomargarine sold here." 

Penalty from five dollars to five hundred dollars, or imprison- 
ment for not more than three months, or both such fine and im- 
prisonment. 

Approved, March 1, 1883. 

" An Act to protect and encourage the production and sale of pure 
and wholesome milk, and to prohibit and punish the production and 
sale of unwholesome or adulterated milk." 

This law makes it a misdemeanour to sell or expose for sale adul- 
terated or unwholesome milk, or to keep cows for producing the same 
in an unhealthy condition, or feeding them on feed that will produce 
impure milk, etc. 

Penalty is one hundred dollars for the first offence, and double that 
amount for each subsequent offence. 

Approved, March 12, 1870. 

Colorado. 

" An Act to encourage the sale of milk, and to provide penalties for 
the adulteration thereof." 

This law makes it a misdemeanour to sell adulterated milk or milk 
from which the cream has been taken, or for withholding the strippings 
without the purchasers being aware of the fact. 

Penalty is from twenty-five dollars to one hundred dollars, or 
imprisonment for six months, or by both such fine and imprison- 
ment. 

In force, May 20, 1881. 

"An Act to regulate the manufacture and sale of oleomargarine, 
butterine, suine or other substances made in imitation of, or having 



LEGISLATION. 3OI 

the semblance of butter, and to provide penalties for the violation of 
the provisions hereof." 

This law requires that a license shall be necessary to manufacture, 
import, or sell oleomargarine or kindred products within the State. 
License to manufacture or import not less than one thousand ; license 
to sell not less than five hundred. 

Penalty from fifty dollars to five hundred dollars, or imprisonment 
not to exceed one year or both. 

Approved, April 6, 1885. 

Connecticut. 

" An Act concerning the sale of oleomargarine and other articles." 

This law requires that the article shall be properly branded, and 
that the seller shall keep a sign posted up in his place of business that 
such commodity is sold there. 

Penalty seven dollars, or imprisonment from ten to thirty days or 
both. 

Approved, April 4, 1883. 

Delaware. 

" An Act to regulate the manufacture and sale of oleomargarine." 
This law is restrictive in its nature. 
Penalty fifty dollars, commitment until the fine is paid. 
Approved, February 10, 1879. 

" An Act to amend chapter 154, volume 16, Laws of Delaware." 
This amendment has reference to the fact that the substance manu- 
factured is " artificial butter." 
Passed, March 21, 1883. 

Florida. 

Chapter 80, sections 34-35, McClellans' Digest, 1881. 

Section 34 makes it a misdemeanour to sell spurious preparations as 
butter; section 35 has reference to hotels and boarding-houses. 

Penalty, not to exceed one hundred, or imprisonment not to exceed 
thirty days, or both. 

Illinois. 

" An Act to prevent and punish the adulteration of articles of food, 
drink and medicine, and the sale thereof when adulterated." 

Section 3 of this law has reference to colouring matter in food, 
drink or medicine. 



302 APPENDIX. 

Section 4 of this law has reference to mixing oleomargarine with 
butter, cheese, etc., requiring the seller to inform the buyer of the 
fact and the proportion of the mixture. 

Penalty, first offence, twenty-five dollars to two hundred dollars; 
second offence, one hundred dollars to two hundred dollars, or im- 
prisonment from one to six months or both ; third offence, from five 
hundred dollars to two thousand dollars and imprisonment not less 
than one year nor more than five years. 

Approved, June 1, 1881. 

"An Act to require operators of butter and cheese factories on the 
co-operative plan to give bonds, and to prescribe penalties for the 
violation thereof." 

This law requires the filing of a bond in the penal sum of six 
thousand dollars that certain reports will be made on the first of each 
month and a copy filed with the town clerk, etc. 

Penalty, from two hundred dollars to five hundred dollars, or im- 
prisonment from thirty days to six months, or both. 

Approved, June 18, 1883. 

Indiana. 

Section 2071, Revised Statutes. " Selling unwholesome milk." 
This section provides against the sale of unwholesome milk, whether 
from adulteration or from the feed given the cows ; also against the 
use of poisonous or deleterious material in the manufacture of butter 
and cheese. 

Penalty, from fifty dollars to five hundred dollars. 

" An Act to prevent the sale of impure butter, and the keeping on 
any table at any hotel or boarding-house of impure butter, providing 
penalties declaring an emergency." 

This law requires the branding with the word " oleomargarine." 

Penalty from ten dollars to fifty dollars. 

Approved, March 3, 1883. 

Iowa. 

Section 4042, Code. 

This section provides against the adulteration of milk in any way. 

Penalty, twenty-five dollars to one hundred dollars, and makes the 
offender liable in double that amount to the party injured. 

" An Act to protect the dairy interests and for the punishment of 
fraud connected therewith." 

This law requires that " oleo " and kindred products shall be 
branded with the word " oleomargarine." 

Penalty, from twenty dollars to one hundred dollars or imprisonment 
from ten to ninety days. 



LEGISLATION. 303 

" An Act to prevent and punish the adulteration of articles of food, 
drink, and medicine, and the sale thereof when adulterated." 

This law provides that skimmed milk cheese shall be so branded, 
and when oleomargarine is mixed with any other substance for sale it 
shall be distinctly branded with the true and appropriate name. 

Penalty, first offence, from ten dollars to fifty dollars ; second, from 
twenty-five dollars to one hundred dollars, or confined in the county 
jail not more than thirty days ; third, from five hundred dollars to 
one thousand dollars and imprisonment not less than one year nor 
more than five years. 

Maryland. 

" An Act to repeal the Act of 1883, chapter 493, entitled 'An Act 
for the protection of dairymen, and to prevent deception in the sale of 
butter and cheese, and to re-enact new sections in lieu thereof.' " 

This law requires that substances made in semblance of butter and 
cheese not the true product of the dairy shall be branded with the 
word " oleomargarine " so as to be conspicuous, and that the buyer 
shall be apprised of the nature of the article that he has bought. 

Penalty, one hundred dollars, or imprisonment not less than thirty 
or more than ninety days for the second offence, and not less than 
three months nor more than one year for the third offence. 

Approved, April 8, 1884. 

Maine. 

"An Act to amend chapter 128 of the Revised Statutes, relating to 
the sale of unwholesome food." 

This law is prohibitive as to oleomargarine and kindred products. 

Penalty, for the first offence one hundred dollars, and for each 
subsequent offence two hundred dollars, to be recovered with costs. 

Massachusetts. 

This State has a law against selling adulterated milk. 

Penalty, for first offence, fifty dollars to one hundred dollars ; for 
the second offence, one hundred dollars to three hundred dollars, or by 
imprisonment for thirty to sixty days ; and for each subsequent 
offence, fifty dollars and imprisonment from sixty to ninety days. 

Michigan. 

" An Act to prevent deception in the manufacture and sale of dairy 
products and to preserve the public health." 

This law prohibits the manufacture and sale of oleomargarine and 
kindred products. 



304 APPENDIX. 

Penalty, two hundred dollars to five hundred dollars or not less than 
six months' nor more than one year's imprisonment, or both, for the 
first offence, and by imprisonment for one year for each subsequent 
offence. 

Approved, June 12, 1885. 

Minnesota. 

" An Act to prohibit and prevent the sale or manufacture of un- 
healthy or adulterated dairy products." 

This law prohibits the sale of impure or adulterated milk. 

Penalty, twenty-five dollars to two hundred dollars, or imprisonment 
from one to six months, or both for the first offence, and six months' 
imprisonment for each subsequent offence. 

This law also prohibits the manufacture and sale of oleaginous 
substances or compounds of the same. 

Penalty, from one hundred dollars to five hundred dollars, or from 
six months' to one year's imprisonment, or both, such fine and im- 
prisonment for the first offence, and by imprisonment one year for 
each subsequent offence. 

Approved, March 5, 1885. 

Missouri. 

This State passed the first prohibitory law. 

Penalty, confinement in the county jail not to exceed one year, or 



Nebraska. 

Section 2345, " Skimmed milk or adulterated milk." 
This section provides against the sale of adulterated milk, and 
makes a penalty of from twenty-five dollars to one hundred dollars 
and be liable to double the amount to the person or persons upon 
whom the fraud is perpetrated. 

New Hampshire. 

" An Act relating to the sale of imitation butter." 

This law provides that no artificial butter shall be sold unless it is 
coloured pink. 

Penalty, for the first offence, fifty dollars, and for a second offence a 
fine of one hundred dollars. " A certificate of the analysis sworn to 
by the analyser shall be admitted in evidence in all prosecutions." 

" The expense of the analysis, not exceeding twenty dollars, included 
in the costs." 



LEGISLATION. 305 

New Jersey. 
Law similar to the New York law. 

Ohio. 

This State has a law that is prohibitory except as to oleomargarine 
made of beef suet and milk. 

Penalty, one hundred dollars to five hundred dollars, or from three 
to six months' imprisonment, or both, for the first offence ; and by 
such fine and imprisonment for one year for each subsequent offence. 

Passed, April 27, 1885. 

Oregon. 

The law in this State provides against adulterated and unwholesome 
milk, against keeping cows in an unhealthy condition, and against 
feeding them upon unhealthful food. 

It also provides that oleaginous substances sold upon the market 
shall be so branded as to distinguish them from the true dairy product ; 
and that in hotels, boarding-houses, restaurants, etc., where such sub- 
stances are used as an article of food, the bill of fare shall state the 
fact, and that the name of the said substance shall be posted up in the 
dining-room in a conspicuous place. 

Passed, February 20, 1885. 

Pennsylvania. 

" An Act to protect dairymen, and to prevent deception in sales of 
butter and cheese." 

This act requires the branding of imitation butter and cheese. 

Penalty, one hundred dollars. Violations of this Act by exportation 
to a foreign country are punished by a fine of from five dollars to two 
hundred dollars, or by imprisonment from ten to thirty days, or by 
both such fine and imprisonment. 

Approved, May 24, 1883. 

"An Act for the protection of the public health and to prevent 
adulteration of dairy products and fraud in the sale thereof." 

This law prohibits the sale of oleomargarine and kindred products. 

Penalty, one hundred dollars to three hundred dollars, or by im- 
prisonment from ten to thirty days for the first offence, and by 
imprisonment for one year for each subsequent offence. 

Approved, May 21, 1885. 

Rhode Island. 

" Of the sale of butter, potatoes, onions, berries, nuts, and shelled 
beans." 
This law provides that artificial butter shall be stamped " Oleomar- 

X 



306 APPENDIX. 

garine," and that the retailer shall deliver to the purchaser a label upon 
which shall be the word " Oleomargarine." 
Penalty, one hundred dollars. 

Tennessee. 

Code of 1884, chapter 14, sections 2682, 2683, 2684. 

This law requires that the substance shall be manufactured under 
its true and appropriate name, and that it shall be distinctly branded 
with the true and appropriate name. 

Penalty, from ten dollars to three hundred dollars, or imprisonment 
from ten to ninety days. 

Vermont. 

" An Act to prevent fraud in the sale of oleomargarine and other 
substances as butter." 

This law provides that oleomargarine and kindred products shall 
not be sold as butter. 

Penalty, five hundred dollars. 

Approved, November 1884. 

Chapters 192, Laws of 1874, 76 of 1870, 51 of 1855, provide against 
the adulteration of milk. 

Virginia. 

Code of Virginia, 1873, chapter 865, title 26, section 56. 

" Provision against adulterating milk intended for the manufacture 
of cheese." 

This law provides against the adulteration of milk carried to cheese 
manufactories, etc. 

Penalty, from twenty-five dollars to one hundred dollars, with costs 
of suit. 

West Virginia. 

Chapter 41, Acts of West Virginia, 1885. 

" An Act to prevent the manufacture and sale of mixed and impure 
butter and cheese and imitations thereof." 

This law requires that the true and appropriate name of the sub- 
stance shall be printed thereon, etc. 

Penalty, from ten dollars to one hundred dollars, or imprisonment. 

Wisconsin. 

Section 1494, chapter 61, Revised Statutes. 

This Act provides that no cream shall be taken from the manufac- 
tory where it is being worked up, also that the persons manufacturing 
cheese at factories shall keep certain records. 



LEGISLATION. 2>°7 

Chapter 361, R. S. 

" An Act to prevent the manufacture and sale of oleaginous sub- 
stances or compounds of the same in imitation of the pure dairy- 
products, and to repeal sections 1 and 3 of chapter 49 of the laws of 
1881." 

This law prohibits the manufacture and sale of oleomargarine and 
kindred products. 

Penalty, not to exceed one thousand dollars, or imprisonment not 
to exceed one year, or by both such fine and imprisonment. 

Published, April 13, 1885. 

Territories. 
Arizona. 

" An Act to regulate the sale and manufacture of oleomargarine or 
other substitutes for butter in the Territory of Arizona." 

This law requires that oleomargarine and kindred substances sold 
in the territory shall be appropriately branded with the word " oleo- 
margarine." And that the seller shall deliver to the purchaser a 
printed label on which is the word "oleomargarine." Also that 
dealers shall keep posted up in their places of business this sign, 
" Oleomargarine sold here." 

Penalty for the first offence not less than five dollars, for the second 
offence not less than one hundred dollars or imprisonment for sixty 
days, and for each succeeding offence five hundred dollars and impri- 
sonment for ninety days. 

Approved, March 8, 1883. 

Dakota. 

" An Act to secure the public health and safety against unwhole- 
some provisions." 

This law requires that all oleaginous substances shall be branded 
with their true and proper names. Costs of analyses, not exceeding 
twenty dollars, shall or may be included in the costs of prosecutions. 

Penalty, first offence, one hundred dollars, and every subsequent 
offence, two hundred dollars. 

Passed at the session of 1883. 

The following States and Territories have no law on the 
subject : — 

States. — Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, 
Mississippi, Nevada, North Carolina, South Carolina, Texas. 

Territories. — Alaska, Idaho, Montana, New Mexico, Utah, 
Washington, Wyoming. 

X 2 



308 APPENDIX. 

The complete text of the United States Oleomargarine 
Tax Law is as follows : — 

Section i. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Repre- 
sentatives of the United States of America, in Congress assembled. 
That for the purposes of this Act the word " butter " shall be under- 
stood to mean the food product usually known as butter, and which is 
made exclusively from milk or cream, or both, with or without common 
salt, and with or without additional colouring matter. 

2. That for the purposes of this Act certain manufactured substances 
certain extracts, and certain mixtures and compounds, including such 
mixtures and compounds with butter, shall be known and designated 
as "oleomargarine," namely: All substances heretofore known as 
oleomargarine, oleo, oleomargarine oil, butterine, lardine, suine, and 
neutral ; all mixtures and compounds of oleomargarine, oleo, oleo- 
margarine oil, butterine, lardine, suine, and neutral ; all lard extracts 
and tallow extracts ; and all mixtures and compounds of tallow, beef 
fat, suet, lard, lard oil, vegetable oil, annatto and other colouring matter, 
intestinal fat, and offal fat made in imitation or semblance of butter, or 
when sojmade, calculated or intended to be sold as butter or for butter. 

3. That special taxes are imposed as follows: — Manufacturers of 
oleomargarine shall pay six hundred dollars. Every person who 
manufactures oleomargarine for sale shall be deemed a manufacturer 
of oleomargarine. 

4. Wholesale dealers in oleomargarine shall pay four hundred and 
eighty dollars. Every person who sells or offers for sale oleomargarine 
in the original manufacturer's packages shall be deemed a wholesale 
dealer in oleomargarine. But any manufacturer of oleomargarine who 
has given the required bond and paid the required special tax, and 
who sells only oleomargarine of his own production, at the place of 
manufacture, in the original packages to which the tax-paid stamps 
are affixed, shall not be required to pay the special tax of a wholesale 
dealer in oleomargarine on account of such sale. 

Retail dealers in oleomargarine shall pay forty-eight dollars. Every 
person who sells oleomargarine in less quantities than ten pounds at 
one time shall be regarded as a retail dealer in oleomargarine. And 
Sections 3232, 3233, 3234, 3235, 3236, 3237, 3238, 3239, 3240, 3241, 
and 3243 of the Revised Statutes of the United States are, so far as 
applicable, made to extend to and include and apply to the special 
taxes imposed by this section, and to the persons upon whom they are 
imposed. (See page 10 for Revised Statutes.) Provided, That in case 
any manufacturer of oleomargarine commences business subsequent to 
the thirtieth day of June in any year, the special tax shall be reckoned 
from the first day of July in that year, and shall be five hundred dollars. 

4. That every person who carries on the business of a manufacturer 



LEGISLATION. 3O9 

of oleomargarine without having paid the special tax therefor, as 
required by law, shall, besides being liable to the payment of the tax, 
be fined not less than one thousand dollars and not more than five 
thousand dollars ; and every person who carries on the business of a 
wholesale dealer in oleomargarine without having paid the special tax 
therefor, as required by law, shall, besides being liable to the payment 
of the tax, be fined not less than five hundred dollars nor more than 
two thousand dollars, and every person who carries on the business of 
a retail dealer in oleomargarine without having paid the special tax 
therefor, as required by law, shall, besides being liable to the payment 
of the tax, be fined not less than fifty dollars nor more than five 
hundred dollars for each and every offence. 

5. That every manufacturer of oleomargarine shall file with the 
Collector of Internal Revenue of the district in which his manufactory 
is located, such notices, inventories, and bonds, shall keep such books 
and render such returns of materials and products, shall put up such 
signs and affix such number to his factory, and conduct his business 
under such surveillance of officers and agents as the Commissioner of 
Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury 
may, by regulation, require. But the bond required of such manu- 
facturer shall be with sureties satisfactory to the Collector of Internal 
Revenue, and in a penalj sum of not less than five thousand dollars, 
and the sum of said bond may be increased from time to time, and 
additional sureties required at the discretion of the Collector, or 
under instructions of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue. 

6. That all oleomargarine shall be packed by the manufacturer 
thereof in firkins, tubs, or other wooden packages not before used for 
that purpose, each containing not less than ten pounds, and marked, 
stamped and branded as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with 
the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, shall prescribe ; and all 
sales made by manufacturers of oleomargarine and wholesale dealers 
in oleomargarine shall be in original stamped packages. Retail 
dealers in oleomargarine must sell only from original stamped pack- 
ages, in quantities not exceeding ten pounds, and shall pack the oleo- 
margarine sold by them in suitable wooden or paper packages, which 
shall be marked and branded as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue 
with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, shall prescribe. 
Every person who knowingly sells or offers for sale, or delivers or 
offers to deliver, any oleomargarine in any other form than in new 
wooden or paper packages as above described, or who packs in any 
package any oleomargarine in any manner contrary to law, or who 
falsely brands any package or affixes a stamp on any package denoting 
a less amount of tax than that required by law, shall be fined for each 
offence not more than one thousand dollars, and be imprisoned not 
less than six months nor more than two years. 



3IO APPENDIX. 

7. That every manufacturer of oleomargarine shall securely affix, 
by pasting, on each package containing oleomargarine manufactured 
by him, a label on which shall be printed, besides the number of the 
manufactory and the district and State in which it is situated, these 
words : — " Notice. — The manufacturer of the oleomargarine herein con- 
tained has complied with all the requirements of law. Every person 
is cautioned not to use this package again or the stamp thereon again 
nor to remove the contents of this package without destroying said 
stamp, under the penalty provided by law in such cases." Every 
manufacturer of oleomargarine who neglects to affix such label to any 
package containing oleomargarine made by him, or sold or offered for 
sale by or for him, and every person who removes any such label so 
affixed from any such package, shall be fined fifty dollars for each 
package in respect to which such offence is committed. 

8. That upon oleomargarine which shall be manufactured and sold, 
or removed for consumption or use, there shall be assessed and col- 
lected a tax of two cents per pound, to be paid by the manufacturer 
thereof; and any fractional part of a pound in a package shall be 
taxed as a pound. The tax levied by this section shall be represented 
by coupon stamps ; and the provisions of existing laws governing the 
engraving, issue, sale, accountability, effacement and destruction of 
stamps relating to tobacco and snuff, as far as applicable, are hereby 
made to apply to stamps provided for by this section. 

9. That whenever any manufacturer of oleomargarine sells, or 
removes for sale or consumption, any oleomargarine upon which the 
tax is required to be paid by stamps, without the use of the proper 
stamps, it shall be the duty of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, 
within a period of not more than two years after such sale or removal, 
upon satisfactory proof, to estimate the amount of tax which has been 
omitted to be paid, and to make an assessment therefor and certify 
the same to the collector. The tax so assessed shall be in addition to 
the penalties imposed by law for such sale or removal. 

10. That all oleomargarine imported from foreign countries shall, in 
addition to any import duty imposed on the same, pay an internal 
revenue tax of 15 cents per pound, such tax to be represented by 
coupon stamps as in the case of oleomargarine manufactured in the 
United States. The stamps shall be affixed and cancelled by the 
owner or importer of the oleomargarine while it is in the custody of 
the proper custom-house officers ; and the oleomargarine shall not 
pass out of the custody of said officers until the stamps have been so 
affixed and cancelled, but shall be put up in wooden packages, each 
containing not less than ten pounds ; as prescribed in this Act for 
oleomargarine manufactured in the United States, before the stamps 
are affixed ; and the owner or importer of such oleomargarine shall be 
liable to all the penal provisions of this Act prescribed for manu- 



LEGISLATION. 3 I I 

facturers of oleomargarine manufactured in the United States. When- 
ever it is necessary to take any oleomargarine so imported to any place 
other than the public stores of the United States for the purpose of 
affixing and cancelling such stamps, the Collector of Customs of the 
port where such oleomargarine is entered, shall designate a bonded 
warehouse to which it shall be taken, under the control of such cus- 
toms officer as such collector shall direct ; and every officer of customs 
who permits such oleomargarine to pass out of his custody or control 
without compliance by the owner or importer thereof with the pro- 
visions of this section relating thereto, shall be guilty of a misde- 
meanour, and shall be fined not less than one thousand dollars nor 
more than five thousand dollars, and imprisoned not less than six 
months nor more than three years. Every person who sells or offers 
for sale any imported oleomargarine, or oleomargarine purporting or 
claimed to have been imported, not put up in packages and stamped 
as provided by this Act, shall be fined not less than five hundred 
dollars nor more than five thousand dollars, and be imprisoned not 
less than six months nor more than two years. 

ii. That every person who knowingly purchases or receives for sale 
any oleomargarine which has not been branded or stamped according 
to law, shall be liable to a penalty of fifty dollars for each such offence. 

12. That every person who knowingly purchases or receives for sale 
any oleomargarine from any manufacturer who has not paid the 
special tax shall be liable for each offence to a penalty of one hundred 
dollars, and to forfeiture of all articles so purchased or received, or of 
the full value thereof. 

13. That whenever any stamped package containing oleomargarine 
is emptied, it shall be the duty of the person in whose hands the same 
is to destroy utterly the stamps thereon, and any person who wilfully 
neglects or refuses so to do shall for each such offence be fined not 
exceeding fifty dollars, and imprisoned not less than ten days nor more 
than six months. And any person who fraudulently gives away or 
accepts from another, or who sells, buys, or uses for packing oleomar- 
garine, any such stamped package, shall for each such offence be fined 
not exceeding one hundred dollars and be imprisoned not more than 
one year. Any revenue officer may destroy any emptied oleomar- 
garine package upon which the tax-paid stamp is found. 

14. That there shall be in the office of the Commissioner of Internal 
Revenue an analytical chemist and a microscopist, who shall each be 
appointed by the Secretary of the Treasury, and shall each receive a 
salary of two thousand five hundred dollars per annum; and the 
Commissioner of Internal Revenue may, whenever in his judgment 
the necessities of the service so require, employ chemists and micro- 
scopists, to be paid such compensation as he may deem proper, not 
exceeding in the aggregate any appropriation made for that purpose. 



3 1 2 APPENDIX. 

And such commissioner is authorised to decide what substances, 
extracts, mixtures or compounds which may be submitted for his in- 
spection in contested cases are to be taxed under this Act ; and his 
decision in matters of taxation under this Act shall be final. The 
commissioner may also decide whether any substances made in imita- 
tion or semblance of butter, and intended for human consumption, 
contains ingredients deleterious to the public health ; but in case of 
doubt or contest his decisions in this class of cases may be appealed 
from to a board hereby constituted for the purpose, and composed of 
the Surgeon-General of the Army, the Surgeon- General of the Navy, 
and the Commissioner of Agriculture, and the decisions of this body 
shall be final in the premises. 

15. That all packages of oleomargarine subject to tax under this Act 
that shall be found without stamps or marks as herein provided, and 
all oleomargarine intended for human consumption which contains 
ingredients adjudged, as hereinbefore provided, to be deleterious to 
the public health, shall be forfeited to the United States. Any person 
who shall wilfully remove or deface the stamps, marks or brands on the 
package containing oleomargarine taxed as provided herein shall be 
guilty of a misdemeanour, and shall be punished by a fine of not less 
than one hundred dollars nor more than two thousand dollars, and 
by imprisonment for not less than thirty days nor more than six 
months. 

16. That oleomargarine may be removed from the place of manu- 
facture for export to a foreign country without payment of tax or 
affixing stamps thereto, under such regulations and the filing of such 
bonds and other security as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, 
with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may prescribe. 
Every person who shall export oleomargarine shall brand upon every 
tub, firkin, or other package containing such article the word " oleo- 
margarine " in plain Roman letters not less than one-half inch square. 

17. That whenever any person engaged in carrying on the business 
of manufacturing oleomargarine defrauds, or attempts to defraud, the 
United States of the tax on the oleomargarine produced by him, or 
any part thereof, he shall forfeit the factory and manufacturing appa- 
ratus used by him, and all oleomargarine and all raw material for the 
production of oleomargarine found in the factory and on the factory 
premises, and shall be fined not less than five hundred dollars nor 
more than five thousand dollars, and be imprisoned not less than six 
months nor more than three years. 

18. That if any manufacturer of oleomargarine, any dealer therein, 
or any importer or exporter thereof shall knowingly or wilfully omit, 
neglect, or refuse to do, or cause to be done, any of the things required 
by law in the carrying on or conducting of his business, or shall do 
anything by this Act prohibited, if there be no specific penalty or 



LEGISLATION. 3 1 3 

punishment imposed by any other section of this Act for the neglect- 
ing, omitting, or refusing to do, or for the doing or causing to be done, 
the thing required or prohibited, he shall pay a penalty of one thousand 
dollars ; and if the person so offending be the manufacturer of or a 
wholesale dealer in oleomargarine, all the oleomargarine owned by 
him, or in which he has any interest as owner, shall be forfeited to the 
United States. 

19. That all fines, penalties and forfeitures imposed by this Act may 
be recovered in any court of competent jurisdiction. 

20. That the Commissioner of Internal Revenue with the approval 
of the Secretary of the Treasury, may make all needful regulations for 
the carrying into effect of this Act. 

21. That this Act shall go into effect on the ninetieth day after its 
passage ; and all wooden packages containing ten or more pounds of 
oleomargarine found on the premises of any dealer on or after the 
ninetieth day succeeding the date of the passage of this Act shall be 
deemed to be taxable under section eight of this Act, and shall be 
taxed, and shall have affixed thereto the stamps, marks, and brands 
required by this Act or by regulations made pursuant to this Act ; and 
for the purposes of securing the affixing of the stamps, marks and 
brands required by this Act, the oleomargarine shall be regarded as 
having been manufactured and sold, or removed from the manufactory 
for consumption or use, on or after the day this Act takes effect ; and 
such stock on hand at the time of the taking effect of this Act may be 
stamped, marked and branded under special regulations of the Com- 
missioner of Internal Revenue, approved by the Secretary of the 
Treasury ; and the Commissioner of Internal Revenue may authorise 
the holder of such packages to mark and brand the same and to affix 
thereto the proper tax-paid stamps. 

The following is the United States' Tea Adulteration 
Law : — 

Section i. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Represen- 
tatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That 
from and after the passage of this Act it shall be unlawful for any 
person or persons or corporation to import or bring into the United 
States any merchandise for sale as tea, adulterated with spurious leaf 
or with exhausted leaves, or which contains so great an admixture of 
chemicals or other deleterious substances as to make it unfit for use ; 
and the importation of all such merchandise is hereby prohibited. 

2, That on making entry at the custom house of all tea or mer- 
chandise described as tea imported into the United States, the im- 
porter or consignee shall give a bond to the collector of the port that 
such merchandise shall not be removed from warehouse until released 



314 APPENDIX. 

by the custom house authorities, who shall examine it with reference 
to its purity and fitness for consumption ; and that for the purpose of 
such examination samples of each line in every invoice shall be sub- 
mitted by the importer or consignee to the examiner, with his written 
statement that such samples represent the true quality of each and 
every part of the invoice, and accord with the specification therein 
contained ; and in case the examiner has reason to believe that such 
samples do not represent the true quality of the invoice, he shall make 
such further examination of the tea represented by the invoice, or any 
part thereof, as shall be necessary : Provided, That such further ex- 
amination of such tea shall be made within three days after entry 
thereof has been made at the custom house : And provided further, 
That the bond above required shall also be conditioned for the pay- 
ment of all custom house charges which may attach to such mer- 
chandise prior to being released or destroyed (as the case may be) 
under the provisions of this Act. 

3. That if, after an examination, as provided in section two, the tea 
is found by the examiner not to come within the prohibition of this 
Act, a permit shall at once be granted to the importer or consignee 
declaring the tea free from the control of the custom authorities ; but 
if on examination such tea, or merchandise described as tea, is found, 
in the opinion of the examiner, to come within the prohibitions of this 
Act, the importer or consignee shall be immediately notified, and the 
tea, or merchandise described as tea, so returned shall not be released 
by the custom house, unless on a re-examination called for by the 
importer or consignee, the return of the examiner shall be found 
erroneous : Provided, That should a portion of the invoice be passed 
by the examiner, a permit shall be granted for that portion, and the 
remainder held for further examination, as provided in section four. 

4. That in case of any dispute between the importer or consignee 
and the examiner, the matter in dispute shall be referred for arbitration 
to a committee of three experts, one to be appointed by the collector, 
one by the importer, and the two to choose a third, and their decision 
shall be final ; and if upon such final re-examination the tea shall be 
found to come within the prohibitions of this Act, the importer or 
consignee shall give a bond, with securities satisfactory to the col- 
lector, to export such tea, or merchandise described as tea, out of the 
limits of the United States, within a period of six months after such 
final re-examination ; but if the same shall* not have been exported 
within the time specified, the collector, at the expiration of that time 
shall cause the same to be destroyed. 

5. That the examination and appraisement herein provided for shall 
be made by a duly qualified appraiser of the port at which said tea is 
entered, and when entered at ports where there are no appraisers, 
such examination and appraisement shall be made by the revenue 



LEGISLATION. 3 I 5 

officers to whom is committed the collection of duties, unless the 
Secretary of the Treasury shall otherwise direct. 

6. That leaves to which the term " exhausted " is applied in this 
Act shall mean and include any tea which has been deprived of its 
proper quality, strength, or virtue by steeping, infusion, decoction, or 
other means. 

7. That teas actually on shipboard for shipment to the United 
States at the time of the passage of this Act shall not be subject to the 
prohibition thereof. 

8. That the Secretary of the Treasury shall have the power to 
enforce the provisions of this Act by appropriate regulations. 

Approved, March 2, 1883. 



The following is the text of the California Wine Adultera- 
tion Law, passed Feb. 17th, 1887 : — 

The People of the State of California, represented in Senate and 
Assembly, do enact as follows : — 

Section i. For the purposes of this Act, pure wine shall be 
defined as follows : The juice of grapes fermented, preserved, or 
fortified for use as a beverage, or as a medicine, by methods recog- 
nised as legitimate according to the provisions of this Act ; unfer- 
mented grape juice, containing no addition of distilled spirits, may be 
denominated according to popular custom and demand as wine only 
when described as "unfermented wine," and shall be deemed pure 
only when preserved for use as a beverage or medicine, in accordance 
with the provisions of this Act. Pure grape must shall be deemed to 
be the juice of grapes, only, in its natural condition, whether expressed 
or mingled with the pure skins, seeds, or stems of grapes. Pure con- 
densed grape must shall be deemed to be pure grape must from which 
water has been extracted by evaporation for purposes of preservation 
or increase of saccharine strength. Dry wine is that produced by 
complete fermentation of saccharine contained in must. Sweet wine 
is that which contains more or less saccharine appreciable to the 
taste. Fortified wine is that wine to which distilled spirits have been 
added to increase alcoholic strength, for purposes of preservation only, 
and shall be held to be pure, when the spirits so used are the product 
of the grape only. Pure champagne or sparkling wine is that which 
contains carbonic acid gas or effervescence produced only by natural 
fermentation of saccharine matter of musts, or partially fermented 
wine in bottle. 

2. In the fermentation, preservation, and fortification of pure wine, 



316 APPENDIX. 

it shall be specifically understood that no materials shall be used 
intended as substitutes for grapes, or any part of grapes ; no colouring 
matters shall be added which are not the pure products of grapes 
during fermentation, or by extraction from grapes with the aid of pure 
grape spirits ; no foreign fruit juices, and no spirits imported from 
foreign countries, whether pure or compounded with fruit juices, or 
other material not the pure product of grapes, shall be used for any 
purpose; no aniline dyes, salicylic acid, glycerine, alum, or other 
chemical antiseptics, or ingredients recognised as deleterious to the 
health of consumers, or as injurious to the reputation of wine as pure, 
shall be permitted ; and no distilled spirits shall be added except for 
the sole purpose of preservation, and without the intention of enabling 
trade to lengthen the volume of fortified dry wine by the addition of 
water, or other wine weaker in alcoholic strength. 

3. In the fermentation and preservation of pure wine, and during 
the operations of fining or clarifying, removing defects, improving 
qualities, blending and maturing, no methods shall be employed which 
essentially conflict with the provisions of the preceding sections of this 
Act, and no materials shall be used for the promotion of fermentation, 
or the assistance of any of the operations of wine treatment which are 
injurious to the consumer or the reputation of wine as pure ; provided, 
that it shall be expressly understood that the practices of using pure 
tannin in small quantities, leaven to excite fermentation only, and not 
to increase the material for the production of alcohol ; water before or 
during, but not after fermentation, for the purpose of decreasing the 
saccharine strength of musts to enable perfect fermentation ; and the 
natural products of grapes in the pure forms as they exist in pure 
grape musts, skins, and seeds ; sulphur fumes, to disinfect cooperage 
and prevent disease in wine ; and pure gelatinous and albuminous 
substances, for the sole purpose of assisting fining or clarification, shall 
be specifically permitted in the operations hereinbefore mentioned, in 
accordance with recognised legitimate custom. 

4. It shall be unlawful to sell, or expose, or offer to sell under the 
name of wine, or grape musts, or condensed musts, or under any names 
designating pure wines, or pure musts as hereinbefore classified and 
defined, or branded, labelled, or designated in any way as wine or 
musts, or by any name popularly and commercially used as a desig- 
nation of wine produced from grapes, such as claret, burgundy, hock, 
sauterne, port, sherry, madeira, and angelica, any substance, or com- 
pound, except pure wine, or pure grape must, or pure grape condensed 
must, as defined by this Act, and produced in accordance with and 
subject to restrictions herein set forth ; provided, that this Act shall 
not apply to liquors imported from any foreign country, which are 
taxed upon entry by custom laws in accordance with a specific duty 
and contained in original packages or vessels and prominently 



LEGISLATION. 3 I 7 

branded, labelled, or marked so as to be known to all persons as 
foreign products, excepting, however, when such liquors shall contain 
adulterations of artificial colouring matters, antiseptic chemicals, or 
other ingredients known to be deleterious to the health of consumers ; 
and provided further, that this Act shall not apply to currant wine, 
gooseberry wine, or wines made from other fruits than the grape, 
which are labelled or branded and designated and sold, or offered or 
exposed for sale under names, including the word wine, but also 
expressing distinctly the fruit from which they are made, as gooseberry 
wine, elderberry wine, or the like. Any violation of any of the pro- 
visions of any of the preceding sections shall be a misdemeanour. 

5. Exceptions from the provisions of this Act shall be made in the 
case of pure champagne, or sparkling wine, so far as to permit the use 
of crystallised sugar in sweetening the same according to usual 
custom, but in no other respect. 

6. In all sales and contracts for sale, production, or delivery of 
products denned in this Act, such products, in the absence of a written 
agreement to the contrary, shall be presumed to be pure as herein 
defined, and such sale or contracts shall, in the absence of such an 
agreement, be void, if it be established that the products so sold or 
contracted for were not pure as herein defined. And in such case the 
concealment of the true character of such products shall constitute 
actual fraud for which damages may be recovered, and in a judgment 
for damages, reasonable attorney fees to be fixed by the Court, shall 
be taxed as costs. 

7. The Controller of the State shall cause to have engraved plates, 
from which shall be printed labels which shall set forth that the wine 
covered by such labels is pure California wine in accordance with this 
Act, and leaving blanks for the name of the particular kind of wine, 
and the name or names of the seller of the wine and place of business. 
These labels shall be of two forms or shapes, one a narrow strip to 
cap over the corks of bottles, the other, round or square, and suffi- 
ciently large, say three inches square, to cover the bungs of packages 
in which wine is sold. Such labels shall be furnished upon proper 
application to actual residents, and to be used in this State only, and 
only to those who are known to be growers, manufacturers, traders, 
or handlers, or bottlers of California wine, and such parties will be 
required to file a sworn statement with said Controller, setting forth 
that his or their written application for such labels is and will be for 
his or their sole use and benefit, and that he or they will not give, sell, 
or loan such label to any other person or persons whomsoever. Such 
labels shall be paid for at the same rate and price as shall be found to 
be the actual cost price to the State, and shall be supplied from time 
to time as needed upon the written application of such parties as are 
before mentioned. Such label when affixed to bottle or wine package 



3 1 8 APPENDIX. 

shall be so affixed, that by drawing the cork from bottle or opening 
the bung of package, such label shall be destroyed by such opening ; 
and before affixing such labels all blanks shall be filled out by stating 
the variety or kind of wine that is contained in such bottle or package, 
and also by the name or names and Post Office address of such 
grower, manufacturer, trader, handler, or bottler of such wine. 

8. It is desired and required that all and every grower, manu- 
facturer, trader, handler, or bottler of California wine, when selling or 
putting up for sale any California wine, or when shipping California 
wine to parties to whom sold, shall plainly stencil, brand, or have 
printed where it will be easily seen, first, " Pure California Wine," and 
secondly his name, or the firm's name, as the case may be, both on 
label of bottle or package in which wine is sold and sent, or he may, 
in lieu thereof, if he so prefers and elects, affix the label which has 
been provided for in section seven. It shall be unlawful to affix any 
such stamp or label as above provided to any vessel containing any 
substance other than pure wine, as herein defined, or to prepare or use 
on any vessel containing any liquid any imitation or counterfeit of 
such stamp, or any paper in the similitude or resemblance thereof, or 
any paper of such form and appearance as to be calculated to mislead 
or deceive any unwary person, or cause him to suppose the contents 
of such vessel to be pure wine. It shall be unlawful for any person 
or persons, other than the ones for whom such stamps were procured, 
to in any way use such stamps, or to have possession of the same. 
A violation of any of the provisions of this section shall be a misde- 
meanour, and punishable by fine of not less than fifty dollars and not 
more than five hundred dollars, or by imprisonment in the county jail 
for a term of not exceeding ninety days, or by both such fine and 
imprisonment. All moneys collected by virtue of prosecutions had 
against persons violating any provisions of this or any preceding 
sections shall go one half to the informer and one half to the District 
Attorney prosecuting the same. 

9. It shall be the duty of the Controller to keep an account, in a 
book to be kept for that purpose, of all stamps, the number, design,, 
time when, and to whom furnished. The parties procuring the same 
are hereby required to return to the Controller semi-annual statements 
under oath, setting forth the number used, and how many remain on 
hand. Any violation of this section, by the person receiving such 
stamps, is a misdemeanour. 

10. It shall be the duty of any and all persons receiving such stamps 
to use the same only in their business, in no manner or in nowise to 
allow the same to be disposed of except in the manner authorised by 
this Act ; to not allow the same to be used by any other person or 
persons. It shall be their duty to become satisfied that the wine 
contained in the barrels or bottles is all that said label imports as 



LEGISLATION. 319 

defined by this Act. That they will use the said stamps only in this 
State, and shall not permit the same to part from their possession, 
except with the barrels, packages, or bottles upon which they are placed 
as provided by this Act. A violation of any of the provisions of this 
section is hereby made a felony. 

12. This Act shall take effect and be in force ninety days after 
its passage. 



INDEX. 



Acetous fermentation, 225 
Acids, acetic, 146 

butyric, 63 

malic, 173 

nitrous, 210 

phosphoric, 147 

picric, 153 

salicylic, 149, 177 

■ succinic, 174 

sulphuric, 176, 227 

tannic, 22, 174 

tartaric, 102, 173 

in beer, 146 

butter, 63, 71 

wine, 172 

Adams' test for milk, 59 
Adulteration, excuses for, 1 

extent of, 5, 7 

varieties of, 9, 10 

Albuminoid ammonia, 207 
Albuminoids in beer, 145 

flour, 89 

water, 207 

Alcohol in beer, 143 

bread, 94 

■ liquors, 195 

Alcoholometric tables, 144, 196 
Alkaloids in beer, 150 

flour, 91 

milk, 62 

Allspice, 253 
Aloes, 152 



Alum in baking powders, 102 

bread, 98 

flour, 92 

American adulteration, 8 

cheese, 85 

wine, 158 

Ammonia in water, 207 
Amylic alcohol, 197 
Annato in butter, yy 

cheese, 86 

Aniline dyes in wine, 178-183 
Artesian wells in New York, 257 
Artificial bitters in beer, 141 

butter, 66 

cheese, 85 

coffee, 31-40 

honey, 122 

jelly, 256 

liquors, 193 

spices, 245 

sugar, 105 

tea, 19, 28 

wine, 167 

Ash of beer, 136 

bread, 96 

chicory, 35 

cocoa, 44 

coffee, 31, 35 

■ flour, 89 

milk, 52 

mustard, 242 

pepper, 244 

pickles, 232 

sugar, no 



INDEX. 



321 



Ash of tea, 16, 22 

wine, 175 

Asparagus, 254 

B. 

Bacteria in water, 220 

Bakers' chemicals, 101 

Baking powders, 102 

Banana essence, 129 

Barley malt, 132 

Beans in coffee, 31 

Beech leaves in tea, 18 

Beer, 132 

adulteration of, 137 

acids in, 146 

alcohol in, 142 

albuminoids in, 145 

alkaloids in, 150 

American, 134 

analysis of, 142 

ash of, 136, 147 

bitters in, 137, 141 

carbonic acid in, 143 

composition of, 135 

extract of, 134, 144 

flavourings for, 137 

glucose in, 138 

glycerine in, 150 

lager, 134 

malt substitutes in, 138 

manufacture of, 133 

phosphates in, 147 

picric acid in, 153 

picrotoxine in, 153 

production of, 134 

salicylic acid in, 149 

salt in, 147 

soda in, 140 

standards for, 148 

sugar in, 144 

sulphites in, 156 

Wittstein's test for, 1 5 1 

varieties of, 133 

Bees' wax, 128 
Bibliography, 258 



Biological examination of water, 216 

Bitters in beer, 141 

Bleaching of flour, 90 

sugar, 108 

Blending of beer, 140 

liquors, 185 

wine, 164 

Blue pigments, 14, 107 

Boards of Health, 6 

Borax in milk, 61 

Bouquet of liquors, 187 

wine, 164 

Brandy, 186 

Bread, 94 

aerated, 95 

alcohol in, 94 

alum in, 98 

analysis of, 97 

ash of, 96 

composition of, 96 

salt in, 96 

soda in, 95 

starch in, 96 

water in, 96 

Brewing in the United States, 134 

Butter, 63 

acids in, 71 

adulteration of, 66 

analysis of, 65 

Angell & Hehner's test, 72 

annato in, 77 

artificial, 66 

ash of, 65 

carrotin in, 77 

colouring of, 77 

composition of, 63 

examination of, 65, 68 

fat crystals in, 79 

fusing point of, 63, 69 

gelatine in, 76 

Hubl's process for, 75 

Koettstorfer's process for, 71 

microscopic appearance of, 78 

oleomargarine in, 66 

photomicrographs of 78 



322 



INDEX. 



Butter, Reichert's process for, 73 

saffron in, 77 

salt in, 65 

soluble acids in, 71 

■ specific gravity of, 67 

tests for purity of, 70 

volatile acids in, 71 

water in, 65 

Butterine, 66, 67 

Butter fat, melting point, 69 

■ specific gravity, 68 

Butyric acid, 63 

alcohol, 188 

ether, 187 

C. 

Caffeine, 21, 39 
California wine, 158, 160 
Cane sugar, 104 
Canned vegetables, 254 
Capsicum, 229 
Carbohydrates, 99 
Carbonic acid, 95, 143 
Carotine, 77 
Caseine, 50, 85 
Cassia, 252 
Cayenne pepper, 247 
Cereals in coffee, 31, 34 
Cheese, 83 

adulteration of, 85 

American, 84 

analysis, 86 

- artificial, 85 

composition of, 83 

fats in, 84 

lard, 85 

varieties of, 83, 84 

Chicory, 31 

ash, 35 

colouring power of, 34 

extract, 38 

in coffee, 32, 34 

sugar in, 37 

tests for, 32 

Chlorine in water, 206 



Chocolate, 42 

ash of, 45 

fats in, 45 

flavourings for, 42 

flour in, 42 

sugar in, 45 

Chrome yellow in coffee, 40 

candy, 131 

Cider vinegar, 230 

Cinnamon, 253 

Cloves, 252 

Coal-tar colours in candy, 130 

mustard, 240 

wine, 178, 183 

Cocoa, 42 

adulteration of, 42, 45 

analysis of, 45 

composition of, 43 

starch in, 42 

theobromine in, 44 

Cocoanut oil in butter, 73 
Coffee, 29 

adulteration of, 3 1 

analysis of, 30 

artificial, 31, 40 

ash of, 31, 35 

caffeine in, 39 

cereals in, 31, 34 

chicory in, 31, 32 

colouring of, 40 

composition of, 30 

density of infusion, 33 

examination of, 32 

extract of, 31 

facing of, 40 

fat in, 30 

sugar in, 37, 38 

tests for purity of, 32, 33 

Cognac essence, 193 

oil, 193 

Colouring agents, 15, 77, 130 

aniline, 130 

annato, 77 

carrotin, 77 

gypsum, 14 



INDEX. 



3 2 3 



Colouring agents, indigo, 14 

lead, 131 

logwood, 178 

Martius' yellow, 77 

mineral, 1 5 

Prussian blue, 1 5 

saffron, 77 

- turmeric, 15, 77 

vegetable, 130 

Venetian red, 40 

Cocculus indicus, 153 
Condensed milk, 53 
Confectionery, 129 
Copper in grains, 255 
pickles, 232 

D. 

Dairy Commissioner, 50 

Darnel in flour, 90 

Dextrine, 24, 146 

Dextrose, 105 

Dialysis, 180, 183 

Diastase, 132 

Digestion of alumed bread, 98 

butter, 82 

oleomargarine, 82 



Elaidin test, 234 
Elm leaves, 18 
Ergot in flour, 90 
Essences, artificial, 129 
Ethers, 129, 174 

F. 

Facing of coffee, 40 

tea, 15 

Fats in butter, 63, 71 

chocolate, 46 

crystals, 79 

fixed, 73 

insoluble, 7 1 

milk, 57 

soluble, 71, 73 



Fats, volatile, 73 
Fehling's test, 37, in 
Feser's lactoscope, $7 
Flavourings for beer, 137 

candy, 1 29 

chocolate, 42 

liquors, 194 

wine, 165 

Flour, 88 

adulteration of, 90 

albuminoids in, 89 

alkaloids in, 91 

alum in, 90, 92 

analysis of, 89 

ash of, 89 

composition of, 87 

fungi in, 91 

gluten in, 89 

phosphates in, starch in, 

tests for, 92 

water in, 89 

Forchammer's test, 203 
Frankland's method, 211 
Fruit, canned, 254 

essences, 129 

wine, 168 

Fusel oil in candy, 129 
liquors, 197 



G. 



Gall's method for wine. 

Gelatine in butter, 76 

Gentian in beer, 150 

Gin, 191 

Ginger, 253 

Glucose, commercial, 105 

estimation of, in 

in beer, 138 

in honey, 124 

in wine, 171 

manufacture of, 105 

tests for, no, 124 

Gluten in flour, 89 
Glycerine in beer, 150 
wine, 171 



162 



324 



INDEX. 



Granules of starch, ioo 
Gypsum in sugar, no 

tea, 14 

wine, 163, 176 

H. 
Honey, 121 

adulteration of, 122 

analysis of, 124 

artificial, 122 

ash of, 123 

comb, 122, 128 

glucose in, 123 

sugar in, 123 

water in, 123 

Hop-substitutes, 137, 150 
Hordeine, 133 
Hawthorn leaves, 18 
Hubl's test, 75 

I. 
Ice, impure, 224 
Indigo, 14, 19, 40, 129 
Iodine test, 99 



Jellies, 256 



J- 



K. 



Kcettstorfer's test, 71 

L. 

Lactometer, 53, 54 
Lactoscope, 57 
Levulose, 107 
Lard cheese, 85 
Leaves in tea, 17, 18 
Legislation, 268 
Liquors, 186 

adulteration of, 

Logwood test, 92 



[92 



M. 



Mace, 253 
Malic acid, 173 
Malt, 132, 137 



Maltose, 107 

Malt substitutes in beer, 137, 148 
Maple sugar, 109 
Marble dust, 131 
Marc of wines, 157 
Martius' yellow, 77 ^ 240 
Meat extracts, 255 
Micro-organisms in water, 214 
Microscopic examination of butter, 
78 

coffee, 40 

fats, 78, 79 

milk, 61 

spices, 246 

starches, 100 

tea, 17 

water, 216 

Milk, 49 

Adam's method for, 59 

adulteration of, 49 

analysis of, 53 

ash of, 52 

caseine in, 59 

composition of, 5 1 

condensed, 53 

cream in, 57 

fats in, 57 

globules, 61 

nitrites in, 62 

photo-micrographs of, 61 

ptomaines in, 62 

skimmed, 50 

specific gravity of, 53, 55 

standards for, 59-60 

sugar of, 59 

total solids, 58 

water in, 56 

Miscellaneous adulteration, 254 
Molasses, 105 

Moore's test for carotine, 77 
Mustard, 239 

adulteration of, 240 

analysis of, 241 

ash of, 242 

colouring of, 240 






INDEX. 



325 



Mustard, composition of, 239 

flour in, 240 

oil of, 241 

sulphur in, 241 

N, 

Nessler's solution, 208 
Nitrates in water, 210 
Nitrites in milk, 62 

vinegar, 231 

water, 210 

Nitrogen in flour, 89 

tea, 21 

water, 210 

O. 

Oenanthic ether, 158 
Oils, bitter almond, 129 

cocoanut, 73 

cognac, 193 

cotton seed, 234, 236 

fusel, 197 

lard, 68 

. mustard, 241 

nut, 235 

olive, 233 

poppy, 235 

rape seed, 236 

sesame, 236 

turpentine, 191 

Oleic acid, 63 
Oleomargarine, 66 

composition of, 67 

digestion of, 82 

effects of, 80, 81 

exportation of, 66 

manufacture of, 66 

photo-micrographs of, 79 

tests for, 70 

Olive oil, 233 

adulteration of, 233 

American, 233 

cotton seed oil in, 236 

examination of, 234 



Olive oil, specific gravity of, 234 

standard for, 237 

Organisms in ice, 219 
water, 217 



Pepper, 243 

adulteration of, 244 

analysis of, 245 

ash of, 244 

cayenne, 247 

composition of, 243 

starch in, 246 

Pepperette, 248 
Phosphates in beer, 147 

bread, 89 

wine, 176 

Photogravures of leaves, 18 

water, 217 

polariscope, 112 

tea, 17 

tea plant, Frontispiece. 

Photo-micrographs of butter, 79 

cream, 61 

— digestion of fats, 82 

fats, 79 

milk, 61 

oleomargarine, 79 

spices, 252 

starches, 100 

Pickles, 232 
Picric acid, 153 
Polariscope, 112 
Polarisation of beer, 148 

honey, 123 

glucose, 118 

lactose, 59 

sugar, 112 

wine, 171 

Poplar leaves, 18 
Preservatives in beer, 149, 156 

butter, tj 

milk, 61 

wine, 177 



326 



INDEX. 



Preserved milk, 53 
Prussian blue in candy, 131 

coffee, 40 

tea, 14 

Ptomaines in ice cream, 62 
milk, 62 

Q. 

Quassia in beer, 152 

R. 

Raisin wine, 168 

Reichert's test, 73 

" Rock and rye " drops, 129 

Rose leaves, 18 

Rum, 190 

S. 

St. Andrew's cross in fats, 79 
Sal aeratus, 101 
Salicine in beer, 137 
Salt in beer, 147 

butter, 65 

Salicylic acid in beer, 149 

wine, 175 

Sand in tea, 14 

Soda water syrups, 257 

Specific gravity of beer, 142 

butter, 63, 68 

fats, 68 

milk, 50, 53 

oils, 232 

spirits, 185-189 

tables, 55, 144. HS> l 9& 

vinegar, 226 

wine, 159 

Spices, 249 

microscopic examination of, 

249 
Standards for beer, 148 

butter, 72, 74, 75 

cocoa, 46 

milk, 59, 60 

tea, 25 

water, 213, 214 



Standards for wine, 184 
Starch, 99 

estimation of, 99 

• granules, 100 

in mustard, 240 

in pepper, 246 

photo-micrographs of, 100 

in spices, 252 

Strychnine in beer, 151 
Sugar, 104 

adulteration of, 107 

analysis of, 109 

ash of, 1 10 

cane, 104 

fruit, 105 

grape, 105, 119 

invert, 104 

malt, 107 

maple, 109 

milk, 59, 107 

tin salts in, 107 

Sulphates in wine, 176 
Sulphuric acid in vinegar, 228 

wine, 176 

Syrups, adulteration of, 108 
glucose, 108 



Tables, of adulteration, 10 

alcoholometric, 144 

coffee infusion, 33 

lactometric, 55 

malt extract, 145 

specific gravity, 55, 143, 196 

Tannic acid in tea, 22 

in wine, 174 

Tartar, cream of, 101 

in wine, 173 

Tartaric acid in baking powder, 103 

in wine, 173 

Tea, 12 

adulteration of, 14 

analysis of, 21, 265 27 

ash of, 16, 17, 22 



INDEX. 



327 



Tea, Ching Suey, 28 

colouring of, 14 

composition of, 15 

dust, 16 

examination of, 21 

extract of, 23 

facing of, 1 5 

factitious, 19, 28 

foreign leaves in, 14, 18 

gypsum in, 14 

gum in, 24 

indigo in, 19 

insoluble ash in, 23 

leaf in, 28 

leaves, 7, 17, 18 

lie, 19 

microscopic examination of, 1! 

Ping Suey, 8 

sand in, 14 

soapstone in, 19 

soluble ash, 23 

South American, 26 

— — spent, 1 5 

standards for, 25 

tannin in, 22 

theine in, 21 

volatile oil in, 22 

Te-mo-ki leaves, 18 
Theine in tea, 21 
Tin in canned fruits, 254 
Tin salts in sugar, 107 

U. 

Ultramarine in sugar, 107 

V. 

Vanilla in chocolate, 42 
Vegetables, canned, 254 
Vinegar, 225 

adulteration of, 229 

analysis of, 227 

cider, 230 

extract of, 227 

malt, 226 



Vinegar, standards for, 227 

sulphuric acid in, 228 

whisky, 230 

wine, 226 

Volatile acids in butter, 73 
ethers in wine, 174 

W. 

Water, 200 

albuminoid ammonia in, 207 

American supply, 220 

bacteria in, 216 

biological examination of, 216 

carbon in, 212 

chlorine in, 206 

croton, 219 

examination of, 201 

Forchammer's process, 203 

Frankland's process, 211 

free ammonia in, 207 

Hudson river, 222 

microscopic examination of, 

216 

nitrates in, 210 

nitrites in, 210 

nitrogen in, 210 

organic matter in, 203 

organisms in, 219 

sewage in, 207, 210 

standards for, 213 

total solids in, 202 

urea in, 207 

Wanklyn's process, 207 

Wheat, 87 
Wheaten flour, 87 

starch, 88, 100 

Whey, 50 
Whisky, 188 

vinegar, 230 

Willow leaves, 18 
Wine, 157 

acids in, 172 

adulteration of, 163 

alcohol in, 169 

American, 158 



328 



INDEX. 



Wine, ash of, 175 

blending of, 164 

California, 160 

colouring of, 166, 178 

ethers in, 174 

examination of, 169 

extract of, 170 

fruit, 168 

glycerine in, 170 

imitation, 167 

improving, 161 

malic acid in, 173 

natural, 160 

Pasteuring, 161 

Petiot's process, 161 

phosphoric acid in, 176 

plastering of, 163 



Wine, polarisation of, 171 

raisin, 168 

salicylic acid in, 177 

Scheele's process for, 162 

standards for, 184 

succinic acid in, 174 

sulphates in, 176 

sulphurous acid in, 177 

sugar in, 170 

table of, 159 

tannin in, 174 

tartrates in, 178 

tartaric acid in, 173 

varieties of, 159 

Willow leaves, 18 
Wisteria 18 



PRINTED BY E, AND F. N. SPON, NEW YORK AND LONDON. 



RELIABLE 

FOOD PRODUCTS. 



AS the largest Manufacturers and Dealers in the 
world in this line, we consider it to our interest 
to manufacture only pure and wholesome goods, and 
pack them in a tidy and attractive manner. We im- 
port, manufacture, or deal in nearly everything eaten or 
drank. All goods bearing our name are guaranteed to be 
of superior quality, and dealers are authorized to refund 
the purchase price in any case where consumers have 
cause for dissatisfaction. It is, therefore, to the inter- 
est of both dealers and consumers to use THURBER'S 
BRANDS. 

THURBER, WHYLAND & CO., 

West Broadway, Reade and Hudson Streets, New York. 
Q and II Fenchurck Avenue, London, E. C, England. 
17 Rue Lagrange, Bordeaux, France. 



NOTICE. 

Our Canned Goods are put up with a special quality 
of tin, and most of them, being hermetically sealed 
while fresh at the sources of supply, preserve the fresh 
natural flavors, and are REALLY FRESHER, MORE 
WHOLESOME AND PALATABLE than many so- 
called "fresh" articles which are exposed for sale dur- 
ing considerable periods of time in city markets. 



WHEN the very delicate article of CORN 
STARCH, which is so largely used in the 
family for food, and especially for children and invalids, 
is adulterated with poisonous and unhealthy substances, 
it becomes very important that every housekeeper 
should be cautious and know what kind they use. 

The evidence of such adulteration is most signally 
shown in the following proof, which is by one of the 
most eminent food analysists of Great Britain, viz. : 

" I recently purchased, on the same day and in the same . 
neighborhood, a series of eight samples of starch, paying for 
them three different prices. On subjecting them to analysis, I 
found the whole of them to be adulterated with 20, 30, and even 
nearly 40 per cent, of earthy or mineral matter. This I found to 
consist of mineral white, terra alba, or sulphate of lime." — Letter 
in the London Times, October 5th, 1878. 

(Signed) ARTHUR H. HASSALL, M.D. 

Only a careful chemical analysis will show the 
pure article from the adulterated. 

KINGSFORD'S OSWEGO STARCH 

has been thus analyzed and proved to be perfectly 
pure and free from any foreign substance, as is proved 
by the following report : 

THE ANYLITICAL SANITARY INSTITUTION. 

London, January 1, 1879. 
We have obtained in different parts of the metropolis samples 
of both the qualities of Starch manufactured by Messrs. T. 
Kingsford & Son. 

We have examined them carefully, both with the microscope 
and by chemical analysis, and found the samples without excep- 
tion to be of good color, of excellent quality, perfectly genuine, 
and of great strength. 

THEY WERE QUITE FREE FROM ANY ADDED MIN- 
ERAL MATTER. 

(Signed) Arthur Hill Hassall, M.D. 
(Signed) Otto Hehner, F.C.S. 

In order to secure the genuine and unadulterated article, 
see that the name T. KINGSFORD & SON is on every box 
and package. 



Anti-Adulteration Baking 
Powders. 



j 



THE BAKING PREPARATIONS 

OF 

PROFESSOR HORSFORD 

[Namely, Professor Horsford's Self-Raising Bread Preparation, put 

up in paper packages; Rumford Yeast Powder, in bottles; and 

Professor Horsford's Phosphatic Baking Powder, in 

bottles with wide mouths to admit a spoon], 

are made of Horsford's Acid Phosphate, in powdered form, and 
are 

HEALTHFUL AND NUTRITIOUS, 

because they restore to the flour the nourishing phosphates lost 
with the bran in the process of bolting. 

These Baking Preparations have received the endorsement 
of, and are 

UNIVERSALLY USED and RECOMMENDED by Promi- 
nent Physicians and Chemists, 
and are for sale by all dealers. 

THEY INCREASE THE NUTRITIVE QUALITIES OF FLOUR. 

Baron Liebig, the world-renowned German chemist, said : 
" I consider this invention as one of the most useful gifts which 
science has made to mankind ! It is certain that the nutritive 
value of flour is increased ten per cent, by your phosphatic Bak- 
ing Preparations, and the result is precisely the same as if the 
fertility of our wheat fields had been increased by that amount. 
What a wonderful result is this ! " 

THE HORSFORD ALMANAC AND COOK BOOK SENT FREE. 

RUMFORD CHEMICAL WORKS, PROVIDENCE, R. I. 



SPONS' ENCYCLOPEDIA 

OF THE 

INDUSTRIAL ARTS, MANUFACTURES AND 
COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS. 

Edited by C. G. WARNFORD LOCK, F.L.S., &c, &c. 

In Super-royal 8vo, containing 2,100 pp., and illustrated by nearly 
1,500 Engravings. 



Can be had in the following bindings : 

In 2 vols., cloth I27.00 

In 5 divisions, cloth ....... 27.00 

In 2 vols, half-morocco, top edge gilt, bound in a superior 

manner . . . . . . . . . 35.00 

In 33 monthly parts, at 75c. each. 

Any Part can be had separate, price fjc. 



Complete List of all the Subjects. 



2, 3 

3i 4 
4, 5 
5,6 
. 6 
. 6 
. 6 
6,7 
7,8 



PART 

Acids .... 
Alcohol .... 
Alkalies. . . . 
Alloys .... 
Arsenic .... 
Asphalte . . . 
Aerated Waters . 
Beer and Wine . 
Beverages . . . 
Bleaching Powder 

Bleaching 8, 9 

Borax 9 

Brushes 9 

Buttons 9 

Camphor 9, 10 

Candles 10 

Carbon 10 

Celluloid 10 

Clays 10 

Carbolic Acid . . . .11 
Coal-tar Products . . .11 

Cocoa n 

Coffee 11, 12 

Cork 12 

Cotton Manufactures . 12, 13 

Drugs 13 

Dyeing and Calico 

Printing 13, 14 



PART 

Dyestuffs 14 

Electro-Metallurgy . . 14 

Explosives 14, 15 

Feathers 15 

Fibrous Substances . 15, 16 
Floor-cloth 16 



16, 



Food Preservation 

Fruit 

Fur 

Gas, Coal . . . 
Gems .... 
Glass .... 
Graphite . . . 
Hair Manufactures . . 18 

Hats 18 

Ice, Artificial 18 

Indiarubber Manufac- 
tures 18, 19 

Ink 19 

Jute Manufactures. . . 19 
Knitted Fabrics (Ho- 
siery) 19 

Lace 19 

Leather 19, 20 

Linen Manufactures . . 20 

Manures 20 

Matches 20, 21 

Mordants 21 



PART 

Narcotics 21, 22 

Oils and Fatty Sub- 
stances ... 22, 23, 24 

Paper 24 

Paraffin 24 

Pearl and Coral .... 24 

Perfumes 24 

Photography .... 24, 25 
Pigments and Paints . . 25 

Pottery 25, 26 

Printing and Engraving . 26 
Resinous and Gummy 

Substances^. . . .26, 27 

Rope 27 

Salt 27, 28 

Silk 28 

Skins 28 

Soap, Railway Grease 
and Glycerine . . . 28, 29 

Spices 29 

Starch 29 

Sugar .... 29, 30, 31 

Tannin 31, 32 

Tea 32 

Timber 32 

Varnish . . .... 32 

Wool and Woollen 

Manufactures . . .22, 33 



Descriptive Catalogue of Books relating to Civil and Mechanical Engineering, 

Arts, Trades and Manufactures sent on application. We can 

supply any book in print at published price. 



E. & F. 



N. SPON, 35 Murray Street, New York. 

X 8 3 S 




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